ECG 243

SOIL MECHANICS

Chapter 4
Compaction &
Consolidation
PROGRAM OUTCOME

 PO 1 Apply knowledge of mathematics, natural science,

engineering fundamentals and an engineering
specialization to wide practical procedures and practices
 PO 2 Identify and analyse well-defined engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using
codified methods of analysis specific to their field of
activity
COPO FOR LECTURE

CO1-PO1
CO2-PO2

COI apply physical and engineering properties knowledge to

wide application of soil mechanic.
CO2 evaluate soil behavior including shear strength,
compaction and consolidation from the standpoint of effective
stress concept.
Learning outcome:
At the end of this lecture, student should
be able to:

 Understand the theory of soil compaction and

consolidation
 Understand the theory of compaction, dry density
and moisture content relationship
 Determine the measured maximum dry density,
optimum moisture content and air-voids curve
from compaction test using standard and modified
proctor test..
Introduction
Introduction
Introduction

Compaction is a process that brings about an increase

in soil density, accompanied by a decrease in air
volume. It is a process of packing soil particles closer
together by mechanical means, e.g rolling, tamping or
vibrating to increase the dry density of the soil, usually
with no change in water content.
The degree of compaction is measured by the
magnitude of dry density achieved and this depends on
the water content and the applied compactive effort
(weight of hammer, number of impacts, weight of roller,
number of passes, etc.).
Introduction

For a given compactive effort, the maximum

dry unit density occurs at an optimum water
content.
Introduction

Results of Poor Compaction

Objectives of compaction

to increase shear strength and therefore

bearing capacity
to increase stiffness and therefore reduce
future settlement
to decrease the voids ratio and so
permeability.
Factors Affecting Compaction

The nature and type of soil, i.e. sand or clay,

uniform or well-graded, plasticity.
The water content at the time of compaction.
Site conditions, i.e. weather, type of site,
layer thickness.
Amount of compactive effort: type of plant
(weight, vibration, number of passes)
Factors Affecting Compaction
Effect of Compactive Effort
 The compactive effort will be greater when
using either a heavier roller on site or a
heavier rammer in the laboratory.
 With greater compactive effort:

1. Maximum dry density increases.

2. Optimum water content decreases.
3. Air-voids content remains almost the same.
Factors Affecting Compaction
Effect of Compactive Effort
Factors Affecting Compaction
Effect of Soil Type
 Well-graded granular soils can be
compacted to higher densities than uniform
or silty soils.
 Clays of high plasticity may have water
contents over 30% and achieve similar
densities (and therefore strengths) to those
of lower plasticity with water contents below
20%.
Factors Affecting Compaction
Effect of Soil Type
Relationship of Dry Density &
Water Content
The state of compaction of a soil can be
measured using its dry density.
The maximum dry density that is attainable
varies with the water content of the soil.
The maximum dry density occurs at an
optimum water content.
Relationship of Dry Density &
Water
Relationship of Dry Density &
Water Content
The curve shows how the dry density of
compacted soil varies as the water content
is increased.
At first, as the water content increases, the
maximum dry density achievable increases,
until an optimum water content is reached.
After this, the maximum achievable dry
density decreases.
Relationship of Dry Density &
Water
 From the values of bulk density and water
content, the dry density is calculated as
follows:
ρd = ρb/ (1+w)

 The max possible dry density at a given

water content is known as the saturation
density, in which state the soil will have
zero air voids, Av = 0
Relationship of Dry Density &
Water
Relationship of Dry Density &
Water Content
A fully saturated soil has zero air content.
However, in practice, even quite wet soil will
have a small air content.

The maximum dry density is controlled by both

the water content and the air-voids content.
Relationship of Dry Density &
Air Void Content
Curves for different air contents can be
added to the ρd/w plot using this expression:

The air-voids content corresponding to the

maximum dry density and optimum water
content can be read off the ρd/w plot or
calculated from this expression
Relationship of Dry Density &
Air Void Content
Example of calculation
Laboratory Compaction

The purpose of laboratory compaction tests

is to establish an achievable standard
against which field performance can be
assessed.
A value for the maximum dry density
achieved at an optimum moisture content is
measured under laboratory conditions for
either light compaction or heavy
compaction.
Laboratory Compaction

This may then be used as a target or control

value.
Samples of compacted soil are collected
from the site and their dry densities
compared to the control value.
Laboratory Compaction
Types of Compaction Test
 Standard proctor test (2.5 kg hammer)
 Modified proctor test (4.5 kg hammer)
 Vibrating Hammer Test
Standard BS Compaction Test
(Proctor test)
Standard BS Compaction Test
- soils finer than 20mm
 Soil sample:
 · Mass required = 5 kg
 · Size limit = < 20 mm

 Procedure:
 · Number of layers = 3
 · Number of blows per layer = 25

 Rammer:
 · Mass = 2.5 kg
 · Face diameter = 50 mm
 · Height of drop = 300 mm

 Mould:
 · Volume = 1000 ml
 · Int diameter = 105 mm
 · Int. height = 115.5 mm
Standard BS Compaction Test
- soils larger than 20mm
 Soil sample:
 · Mass required = 25 kg
 · Size limit = mostly <37.5 mm

 Procedure:
 · Number of layers = 3
 · Number of blows per layer = 62

 Rammer:
 · Mass = 2.5 kg
 · Face diameter = 50 mm
 · Height of drop = 300 mm

 Use a CBR mould:

 · Volume = 2300 ml
 · Int diameter = 152 mm
 · Int. height = 127 mm
The Heavy BS Compaction Test
 It attempts to more accurately reflect the
heavier compactive effort available on
site.
 The heavy BS compaction test is basically
the same as the standard BS test, but
uses a 4.5kg wt falling 450mm instead of
2.5kg falling 300mm.
Compaction Test Procedure

Standard proctor test

Collar

Mould

Base plate

A standard proctor mould

Compaction Test Procedure

• Clean the mould and base plate

• Fit them and record the weight
Compaction Test Procedure

 take about 5 kg of air

dried sample passing
on 37.5 mm (or 20
mm) sieve
Compaction Test Procedure

 Add adequate water

 Mix the soil with the water
Compaction Test Procedure

 Attached the collar to the

mould
 Fill the soil into the mould
Compaction Test Procedure

 Compact the soil in the mould

in 3 equal layers, using the
rammer at 25 blows per layer
Compaction Test Procedure

 Remove the collar

 Cut the excess soil with the
straight edge
 Clean the mould from out side
 Record its weight
Compaction Test Procedure

• Remove the collar and cut

the excess soil
• Record its weight

Calculating Bulk Density

 M1 = Mass of Mould (ie.
Body + Base)
 M2 = Mass of Mould +
Mass of Compacted
Soil
 M3 = Mass of Compacted
Soil
 M3 = M2 – M1
 So, we can now calculate the bulk
density.
Compaction Test Procedure

ρb = M
V

ρb = M2-M1
V (Mg/m3)
Compaction Test Procedure

Note: V = 1000cm3
Compaction Test Procedure

 Take out the sample from

the mould using sample
extruder
Compaction Test Procedure

 Keep a representative
soil specimen for water
content determinations
 Repeat the test about 5
to 6 times with a gradual
increments water content
each time by adding
sufficient amount of water
in the soil
Compaction Test Procedure

ρd = Ms
V

ρd = ρb/ (1+w)
Compaction Test Procedure
Compaction Test Procedure
Compaction Test Procedure
Compaction Test Procedure
Example 1
Cont’d Example
Cont’d Example
Cont’d Example
Cont’d Example
Cont’d Example
 The air-voids content corresponding to the
maximum dry density (1.86 Mg/m³) and
optimum water content (12.9%) can be
calculated directly.
Learning outcome:
At the end of this lecture, student should
be able to:

 Identify the relative compaction and specifications for field

compaction
 Determine the field dry density and allowable range of
moisture content in the field.
 Understand the compaction plants for various types of soils.
 Understand the procedure and determine the compaction
parameters for quality control using sand replacement
method, core-cutter method, water emersion method and
nuclear method.
Quality Control At Site
 End Result Specification
 Method Specification
End Result Specification
 Relative compaction is frequently used as
the method of quality of control in the US
where 95% relative proctor compaction is
often specified.
 Relative Proctor Compaction Illustrated
End Result Specification
 Optimum water content working range, i.e. ±
2%
 Optimum air-voids content tolerance, i.e. ±
1.5%

 For soils wetter than wopt, the target Av can be

used, e.g. 10% for bulk earthworks and 5% for
important work

 The end-result method is unsuitable for very wet

or variable conditions.
Working Range of Moisture
content
Method Specification
 A method specification is a site procedure
in which is specified:
 the type of plant and its mass
 the maximum layer thickness
 the number of passes per layer.

 This type of specification is more suitable

for soils wetter than wopt or where site
conditions are variable.
Field Density Measurement

 Core-cutter method
 Sand replacement method
 Rubber-balloon method
 Immersion in water method
 Nuclear gauge
Core Cutter Method
• suitable for fine soils free of stones
• drive the steel cylinder into the
ground
•The cutter is then dug out and the
soil trimmed off flush at each end
• Since the volume of the cutter is
known, the bulk density may easily
be determined
•At the same time, small samples of
soil are taken for moisture content
determination and dry density can
be calculated
THE CORE CUTTER
METHOD

63
Sand Replacement Method
• suitable for granular soils
• the jar filled with dry Ottawa sand
• in the field, a small hole is excavated
in the area where the soil is compacted
•the cone with the sand-filled jar
attached to it and placed over the hole
• sand is allowed to flow out from the
jar to fill the hole and cone
Sand Replacement Apparatus
Example 2
Rubber Balloon Method
Rubber Balloon Method
 The procedure similar to sand replacement
method
 Test hole is made and the moist weight of
soil removed from the hole and its
moisture content are determined
 The volume of the hole is determined by
introducing into it rubber balloon filled
with water from calibrated vessel, from
which the volume can be read directly
Immersion in Water Method
 This method is suitable for cohesive or
stabilized soils and where an irregular-
shaped intact lump of soil has been
obtained
 The lump sample is weighed (Ms) and after
coating with paraffin wax is weighed again
(Mw)
 The coated sample is the suspended in
water from a balance arm and the
submerged mass recorded (MG)
Nuclear Gauge
• gamma radiation
technique to determine in
situ density and water
content
•the density meters
operate either in drilled
holes or from the ground
surface
• the instrument measures
the weight of weight soil
per unit volume and the
weight of water present in
a unit volume of soil
THE NUCLEAR METHOD
The nuclear apparatus is a versatile device to rapidly
obtain the unit weight & water content of the soil
nondestructively. Soil particles cause radiation to
scatter to a detector tube and the amount of scatter
is counted. The scatter count rate is inversely
proportional to the unit weight of the soil. If water is
present in the soil, the hydrogen in water scatters
the neutrons and amount of
scatter is proportional to
the water content. The
Consist of a
calibration is used to small
determine the unit weight shielded
and water content. radiator
source &
detection.
Did you know that most of
the compaction in the field
is done with rollers???
How to select the most suitable
rollers for the different purpose
of construction and ground
condition
Field Compaction
 Light Soil Compacting
Equipments
These equipments are used for soil compacting of
small areas only and where the compacting effort
needed is less.
i) Rammers
•used for compacting small areas by providing
impact load to the soil.
•light and can be hand or machine operated.
•The base size of rammers can be 15cm x 15cm or
20cm x 20cm or more.
•For machine operated rammers, the usual weight
varies from 30kg to 10 tonnes. These hammers
with 2- 3 tonnes weights are allowed to free fall
from a height of 1m to 2m on the soil for the
compaction of rock fragments.
•suitable for compacting cohesive soils as well as
other soils. This machine in areas with difficulty in
access.
Light Soil Compacting
Equipments
ii) Vibrating Plate Compactors

Vibrating plate compactors are

used for compaction of coarse soils
with 4 to 8% fines.
used for small areas.
The usual weights vary from 100
kg to 2 tonne with plate areas
between 0.16 m2 and 1.6 m2
Light Soil Compacting
Equipments
iii) Vibro Tampers

used for compaction of small areas in confined space.

suitable for compaction of all types of soil by vibrations set
up in a base plate through a spring activated by an engine
driven reciprocating mechanism.
They are usually manually guided and weigh between 50 and
100 kg.
Heavy Soil Compaction
Equipments

 These compacting machines are used for

large areas for use on different types of
soils. The heavy compaction equipments
are selected based on moisture content of
soil and types of soil.
 Following are different types of these
equipments:
Heavy Soil Compaction
Equipments
i) Smooth Wheel Roller
Smooth wheeled rollers are of two types:
Static smooth wheeled rollers
Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers

The most suitable soils for these roller type are well graded
sand, gravel, crushed rock, asphalt etc. where crushing is
required. These are used on soils which does not require great
pressure for compaction.
Generally used for finishing the upper surface of the soil and are
not used for compaction of uniform sands.
The performance of rollers depend on load per cm width it
transfers to the soil and diameter of the drum. The load per cm
width is derived from the gross weight of the drum.
• The smooth wheeled rollers consists of one large steel drum in front
and two steel drums on the rear.
• The gross weight of these rollers is in the range of 8-10 tonnes. The
other type of smooth wheel roller is called Tandem Roller, weighs
between 6-8 tonne.
• The performance of these rollers can be increased by increasing the
weight of the drum by ballasting the inside of drums with wet sand or
water or by using steel sections.
• The desirable speed and number of passes for appropriate compaction
of soil depends on the type of soil and varies from location to location.
About 8 passes are adequate for compacting 20 cm layer. A speed of
3-6 km/h is considered appropriate for smooth wheel rollers.
Vibrating smooth wheeled rollers
the drums are made to vibrate by employing rotating or reciprocating mass.
These rollers are helpful from several considerations like:-

(i) Higher compaction level can be achieved with maximum work

(ii) Compaction can be done up to greater depths
(iii) Output is many times more than conventional rollers

Although these rollers are expensive but in the long term the cost becomes economical due to their higher outputs and improved performance.
Heavy Soil Compaction
Equipments
ii) Sheepsfoot Roller
used for compacting fine grained soils such as heavy clays and silty
clays.
used for compaction of soils in dams, embankments, subgrade
layers in pavements and rail road construction projects.
It is static and vibratory types. Vibratory types rollers are used for
compaction of all fine grained soils and also soil with sand-gravel
mixes. Generally this roller is used for compaction of subgrade layers
in road and rail projects.
• consist of steel drums on which projecting lugs are fixed and can
apply a pressure up to 14kg/sq cm or more.
• The weight of drums can be increased as in the case of smooth
wheeled rollers by ballasting with water, wet sand or by mounting
steel sections.
• The efficiency is affected by the pressure on the foot and coverage of
ground obtained per pass.
• For required pressure and coverage of ground, the parameters such
as gross weight of the roller, the area of each foot, the number of
lugs in contact with the ground at any time and total number of feet
per drum are considered.
• The compaction of soil is mainly due to foots penetrating and
exerting pressure on the soil.
Heavy Soil Compaction Equipments
iii) Pneumatic Roller
• better in many
aspects than
smooth-wheel
rollers
•can be used for
sandy and clayey
soil compaction
•compaction by
combination of
pressure and
kneading action
• also called as rubber tyred rollers.
• used for compaction of coarse grained soils with some fines. These
rollers are least suitable for uniform coarse soils and rocks.
• Generally used in pavement subgrade works both earthwork and
bituminous works.
• Pneumatic rollers have wheels on both axles. These wheels are
staggered for compaction of soil layers with uniform pressure
throughout the width of the roller.
• The factors which affects the degree of compaction are tyre inflation
pressure and the area of the contact.
• The latest rollers have an arrangement to inflate the tyre to the
desired pressure automatically. The total weight of the roller can be
increased from 11.0 tonne to 25.0 tonne or more by ballasting with
steel sections or other means.
iv) Grid Rollers
• used for compaction of weathered rocks, well graded coarse
soils.
• not suitable for clayey soils, silty clays and uniform soils.
• Used in subgrade and sub-base in road constructions.
• these rollers have a cylindrical heavy steel surface consisting
of a network of steel bars forming a grid with squire holes.
• The weight of this roller can be increased by ballasting with
concrete blocks.
• Typical weights vary between 5.5 tonnes net and 15 tonnes
ballasted.
• Grid rollers provide high contact pressure but little kneading
action and are suitable for compacting most coarse grained
soils.
Heavy Soil Compaction
Equipments
v) Pad Foot / Tamping Rollers

•similar to sheepsfoot rollers with lugs of larger

area than sheepsfoot rollers.
•The static pad foot rollers also called tamping
rollers have static weights in the range of 15 to 40
tonnes and their static linear drum loads are
between 30 and 80 kg/cm.
•These rollers are more preferable than sheepsfoot
roller due to their high production capacity, and
they are replacing sheepsfoot rollers.
• The density of soil achieved after compaction with this roller
is more uniform.
• These rollers operate at high speeds, and are capable to
breaking large lumps.
• These rollers also consists of leveling blades to spread the
material.
• Pad foot or tamping rollers are best suitable for compacting
cohesive soils.
Special Compaction techniques
 Vibroflotation
 Dynamic compaction
 Blasting
Conclusion
 In the construction of highway embankments,
earth dams and many engineering structures,
loose soils must be compacted to increase their
unit weight

 Compaction increases the strength

characteristics of soils and bearing capacity of
the foundations

 Compaction also decreases the amount of

undesirable settlement of structures and
increase the stability of slopes of embankments
Thank you
Exercise
Exercise