1.

ecology

ECOLOGY
is the study of:
(1) species populations
(2) biotic communities (plant and animal communities)
(3) ecosystems

All three aspects should be considered in an EIA.

In general, EISs do not cover ecology adequately, both because of:
-lack of funds
-lack of sufficient time
-Also, because of the complex interaction between animals and
plants (e.g. food chains, habitats):
- no single ecologist can deal competently with all aspects
- single species and ecosystems cannot be considered in isolation
- the ecological assessment in EIA should be coordinated with other
aspects, such as climate, soil and water
 1. ecology

ECOLOGY

The main aims of ecological studies in EIA are:

(a) to define the impact area
(b) to assess the conservation value of species and communities
(c) to define the likely impacts
(d) to discuss mitigating measure

the objective is therefore nature conservation in terms of biodiversity,

increasingly under threat. Justification for such conservation are:
- moral
- value for amenity, recreation, education and science
- economic and medical benefits
- conservation of genetic resources
- the role of ecosystems to support human life and safety
 ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

• Ecological assessment is concerned with the study of the

effect of development projects on the natural environment
in relation to changes in habitat, the composition population
density of plant and animal species and ecological
processes (such as succession).

Negative impactsHabitat damage/destruction and

species loss/displacement.

Positive impacts Creation of new habitat during the

restoration, leading to greater
biological diversity.
 ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

• Some countries have established ecological data centers

but there are many more where ecological data are not so
readily available.
• Where limited or no published databases exist, great
importance should be placed on seeking out members of
the local community who have a good knowledge of their
natural surroundings.
 ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT

• Impractical to obtain data for all taxonomic groups since this

is too time consuming and expensive. Therefore decisions
have to be taken on the selection of the most important or
appropriate species or groups of species. This may be based
on the international/national/local importance of species and
habitats in relation to their protected status.

• More grammatically, it is those species, which are more

easily identified that are concentrated on in ecological
assessments: flowering plants, birds and butterflies are the
most popular.
ECOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT
• Alternatively, indicator species may be used to
evaluate the environmental quality of a site
(e.g. lichens for assessing air pollution, e.g.
SO2).
• Biotic indices have been developed to
measure the response of key species or
groups to pollution and their use provides a
cost-effective approach to ecological
assessment, particularly in relation to impacts
on aquatic systems.
 1. ecology
Baseline study.

Scoping the ecological aspects of EIA will require a desk study, and
possibly brief site visits, for a preliminary assessment of:

1. the impact area and the ecological constraints

2. the potential impact factors (Noise KNP)
3. the species, groups and habitats that should be included in the study
4. what field surveys are necessary
5. the level of accuracy needed
6. possible mitigation measures
The impact area will be restricted to the surrounding of the
development in many cases, but hydrology and air pollution are likely to
spread impacts farther away.
The ecological constraints are the presence of species/ecosystems
of regional, national or international importance - you need to identify
them
 1. ecology
Baseline study.

An ecological study must make good use of existing information -

previous studies, maps, etc.
However, some information will be outdated. Normally some field work
is necessary.

1. Phase 1 habitat survey, seeks a general description in terms of

standard species/habitat classification. The information is limited to
qualitative information (presence/no presence). It will always be
necessary to run.
2. Phase 2 survey, provides further information on selected sites and
species. Phase 2 involves collection of (a) quantitative vegetation
data; (b) abundance data of selected animals.
3. Phase 3 survey involves more intensive sampling to collect
quantitative information
 1. ecology
Baseline study

Existing information:

(a) Historical information and maps, e.g from relevant,

museums, libraries; geological and soil maps.

(b) Aerial photographs and satellite images, can be purchased

from commercial firms. Other sources are EN, LAs, MAFF

(c) Previous surveys (phase 1-type), often carried out by County

Wildlife Trusts.

(d) Information on species, held by the Local Biological Records

Centre (LBRC).
 1. ecology

Baseline study. Timing for field survey: many species can be

observed only in some seasons or shorter periods.

E.g.:
- woodland herb-
layer plants
grow and flower
in March-April
- birds surveys in
summer
winter visitors

Ideally, the
survey should
start a full year
before the
submission
date of the EIS
 1. ecology

Impact prediction

It is relatively easy to identify potential impacts (e.g., matrices)

It is extremely difficult to quantify them

(a) direct and indirect

(b) short term and long term
(c) intermittent or accidental
(d) cumulative

Some ecological impacts are clearly direct, such as:

- landtake/habitat destruction (common)

- habitat fragmentation (linear features such as roads)
- vegetation damage through trampling by people, vehicles.
 IMPACT PREDICTION

• The aim of an ecological baseline study is to describe the

ecological conditions without a development proceeding in
sufficient detail for subsequent predictions of conditions
associated with the construction, operational and post-
operational (where appropriate) phases of the development to be
made.
 IMPACT PREDICTION

Predictions of ecological change as a consequence of

development are generally more difficult because of the inherent
complexity and variability of ecosystems compared with physico-
chemical systems.
• Ecological predictions are not always made quantitatively, but
tend to be based on value judgments formulated from literature
reviews comparisons with species records for similar sites and
developments, and expert opinions.
• One relatively simple way of quantifying the magnitude of habitat
damage or loss is to use an overlay technique.
 1. ecology

Impact prediction.
Several methods are available, such as:

(a) checklists and

matrices,
usefuls in scoping,
but do
not assess nature,
magnitude or
significance;

(b) flowcharts and

networks
identify chains of impacts
(direct/indirect),but still
they cannot quantify
the magnitude of impacts.
 1. ecology

Impact prediction, methods

(c) quantitative predictive models are potentially usefuls, but

- they are time-consuming and expensive
- models are not off-the-shelf, they have to be adapted
- more detailed and accurate data are needed
- ecosystems are very complex and poorly understood
- predictions should be tested against a monitoring programme

(d) information from previous projects may be useful, but no two

projects or sites are exactly the same, and ecosystems are complex

(e) expert opinion is always needed, but no single specialist can have
sufficient expertise in all aspects of ecology - need for team work
 1. ecology

Impact significance depends on

(a) magnitude of impacts, and

(b)sensitivity/value of species and ecosystems
Species value depends on:
- roles such as dominant or key species
- amenity value (attractiveness)
- conservation status (protected species, rarity)

Ecosystem value depends on:

- size of the habitat (e.g., through species diversity)
- biodiversity
- naturalness (unspoilt, semi-natural, artificial)
- rarity
- fragility/sensitivity
- typicalness
 1. ecology

Mitigation can aim to avoid, minimise or compensate for an

impact.
PEPA environmental policy requires that
(a) preventive action is preferable to remedial measures
(b)environmental damage should be rectified at source
Therefore, the best mitigation measures involve modification to the
project, rather than containment or repair. E.g.:
- site selection, also for linear features (roads, railways)
-site design and operations
If impacts cannot be avoided, viable options are:
- restoration, valid only for temporary impacts, e.g. during
construction. Reinstatement of original communities is a difficult
task.
- compensation, e.g. providing funds for protection of other areas, or
transplanting
 Species richness and endemics for major plant and
animal groups
  Total reported Endemic Threatended
In Pakistan
Mammals 174 6 20

Birds 668 N/a 25

Reptiles 177 13 6
Amphibians 22 9 1
Fish (freshwater) 198 29 1
Fish (marine) 788 - 5
Echinoderms 25 - 2
Molluses (Marine) 769 - 8
Crustaceans (Marine) 287 - 6
Annelids (Marine) 101 - 1
Insects >5000 - -
Angiosperms 5700 380 N/a
Gymnosperms 21 - N/a
Pteridophytes 189 - N/a
Algae 775 20 N/a
Fungi >4500 2 N/a
Barn Owl (Tyto alba),
a threatened species
Mugger crocodile
Nawabshah
Gavial (Gavialis gangeticus) Endangered
species found in India, Burma and Pakistan
Mugger Crocodile, an endangered species.
Crocodylus palustris India, Pakistan, Iran
HOUBARA
SINDH AND BALUCHISTAN
Markhor
Marine turtle
Imperial Eagle
River shark
(Glyphis sp., possibly Glyphis species B),
Common Leopard
( Panthera Pardus )
Markhor of Torghar
Afghan Urial
Sindh Ibex
Martin & Paul Mikkelsen, Denmark / New
world record 34” Blanford Urial
Himalayan Ibex
Karakurum Blue Sheep
Chinkara
Brown bear
Naja naja naja - Black Pakistan
Pakistan sand boa
Indian-python
Green turtle
Monitor Lizard (Varanus)
Goa(Urdu)VARIANIDAE Genus:Varanus
Status:Rare and restricted
Goa Family:VARIANIDAEGenus:Varanus
Status: Common to Rare
Aceros narcondami
(Narcondam Hornbill)
Chukor Partridge
Common quail
Himalayan Monal
Western Tragopan
Laggar Falcon
Red-Necked Falcon
Deosai National Park