Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Casting

Forming

Sheet metal processing

Powder- and Ceramics Processing

Plastics processing

Cutting

Joining

Surface treatment
Cutting

Processes that involve removal of material from solid workpiece

Sawing
Shaping (or planing),
Broaching, drilling,
Grinding,
Turning
Milling

Important concept: PROCESS PLANNING

Fixturing and Location
Operations sequencing
Setup planning
Operations planning
Sawing

A process to cut components, stock, etc.

Process character: Precision: [very low,, very high]; MRR: low
Sawing

band saw

hand-held circular saw hand-held hacksaw

circular saw blade band saw blade and blade types

wave teeth (for sheet-metal)

right-left teeth (for soft materials)

raker teeth (for hard, brittle materials)

 Shaping

A process to plane the surface of a workpiece (or to reduce part thickness

Process character: High MRR, medium Surface finish, dimension control

tool-post rotates as
(a) (b) (c) slide returns;
workpiece shifted;
tool-post pivot next stroke
slide
chip
chip
 Broaching

Precise process for mass-production of complex geometry parts

(complicated hole-shapes)

Process character: High MRR, Very good surface, dimension control, Expensive

Broaching machine

Broaching tools

Complex hole shapes cut by broaching

Drilling, Reaming, Boring

Processes to make holes

Process character: High MRR, Cheap, Medium-high surface, dimension control

Core drilling: to increase Spade drill: for Step drill: for

Twist drill diameter of existing holes large, deep holes stepped holes

Countersink Counterbore Reamer Center drill Gun drill with holes for coolant
 Drilling basics

- softer materials  small point angle; hard, brittle material: larger point angle

- Length/Diameter ratio is large  gun-drilling (L/D ratio ~ 300)

- Very small diameter holes (e.g. < 0.5 mm): can’t drill (why?)

-  drilled hole >  drill: vibrations, misalignments, …

- Tight dimension control: drill  ream

- Spade drills: large, deep holes

- Coutersink/counterbore drills: multiple diameter hole  screws/bolts heads

Tapping

Processes to make threads in holes

Process character: low MRR, Cheap, good surface, dimension control

Automated tapping
Manual tap and die set
Grinding, Abrasive Machining

Processes to finish and smooth surfaces

Process character: very low MRR, very high surface, dimension control

1. To improve the surface finish of a manufactured part

(a) Injection molding die: milling manual grinding/electro-grinding.
(b) Cylinders of engine: turning  grinding  honing  lapping

2. To improve the dimensional tolerance of a manufactured part

(a) ball-bearings: forging  grinding [control: < 15 m]
(b) Knives: forged steel  hardened  grinding

3. To cut hard brittle materials

(a) Semiconductor IC chips: slicing and dicing

4. To remove unwanted materials of a cutting process

(a) Deburring parts made by drilling, milling
Abrasive tools and Machines

abrasive wheels, paper, tools diamond grinding wheel for slicing silicon wafers diamond dicing wheel for silicon

Grinding wheels

 Grinding machine
Centerless grinding 
 Turning

Processes to cut cylindrical stock into revolved shapes

Process character: high MRR, high surface, dimension control

spindle chuck tool-post tail-stock tail-stock wheel

depth of cut, d

feed, f

lead-screw
carriage wheel carriage cross-slide wheel
Turning operations
depth of cut, d

feed, f

turning taper profile cut groove cut cut-off thread cut

knurling
facing face groove boring, internal groove drilling
Fixturing parts for turning

steps

part in a 3-jaw chuck 4-jaw chuck holding a non-rotational part A long part held between live center (at spindle)
and dead center (at tailstock)

A collet type work-holder; collets are common in

automatic feeding lathes – the workpiece is a long
bar; each short part is machined and then cut-off;
the collet is released, enough bar is pushed out to
make the next part, and the collet is pulled back to
grip the bar; the next part is machined, and so on.
Milling

Versatile process to cut arbitrary 3D shapes

Process character: high MRR, high surface, dimension control

[source: www.hitachi-tool.com.jp]
[source: www.phorn.co.uk]

[source: Kalpakjian & Schmid]]

 Common vertical milling cutters

Flat
Programmed point
Ballnose on cutter

Bullnose
Up and Down milling

(a) Conventional, or Up milling (b) Climb, or Down milling

- chip thickness goes UP; - chip thickness goes DOWN;
- cutting dynamics: smoother - cutting dynamics: bad for forged/cast
parts with brittle, hard scales on surface
Fixtures for Milling: Vise

V-slot vise jaws hold cylindrical parts horizontally/vertically

 Vise fixed to a milling table, holding rectangular part

Universal angle vise can index parts along any direction 

Vise on sine-bar to hold part at an angle

relative to the spindle
 Fixtures for Milling: Clamps

Clamp support Workpiece

(clamp and support have teeth)

Strap clamp

Parallel bars raise the part Bolt (bolt-head is inserted into T-slot in table)
above table surface – allow
making through holes
Process Analysis

Fundamental understanding of the process  improve, control, optimize

Method: Observation  modeling  verification

Every process must be analyzed; [we only look at orthogonal 1-pt cutting]

ve
v

vf
Geometry of the cutting tool

end cutting edge angle lead cutting edge angle

back rake angle

side rake angle

side clearance angle front clearance angle

Modeling: Mechanism of cutting

depth of cut
Chip
Friction between
Chip forms by tool, chip in this
shear in this region region

Tool

Old model: crack propagation Current model: shear

 Tool wear: observations and models

High stresses, High friction, High temp (1000C)  tool damage

Adhesion wear:
fragments of the workpiece get welded to the tool surface at high temperatures;
eventually, they break off, tearing small parts of the tool with them.

Abrasion:
hard particles, microscopic variations on the bottom surface of the chips
rub against the tool surface

Diffusion wear:
at high temperatures, atoms from tool diffuse across to the chip;
the rate of diffusion increases exponentially with temperature;
this reduces the fracture strength of the crystals.
 Tool wear, Tool failure, Tool life criteria

chip
crater wear

tool

workpiece

flank wear

1. Catastrophic failure (e.g. tool is broken completely)

2. VB = 0.3 mm (uniform wear in Zone B), or VBmax = 0.6 mm (non-uniform flank wear)
3. KT = 0.06 + 0.3f, (where f = feed in mm/revolution).
Built-up edge (BUE)

Deposition, work hardening of a thin layer of the workpiece material

on the surface of the tool.

negative rake angle

(for cutting hard, brittle materials)

BUE  poor surface finish

Likelihood of BUE decreases with

(i) decrease in depth of cut,
(ii) increase in rake angle,
(iii) use of proper cutting fluid during machining.
Process modeling: empirical results

Experimental chart showing relation of tool wear with f and V

[source: Boothroyd]
Modeling: surface finish

Relation of feed and surface finish

Analysis: Machining Economics

How can we optimize the machining of a part ?

Identify the objective, formulate a model, solve for optimality

Typical objectives: maximum production rate, and/or minimum cost

Are these objectives compatible (satisfied simultaneously) ?

Formulating model: observations  hypothesis  theory  model

Analysis: Machining Economics..

Formulating model: observations  hypothesis  theory  model

Observation:
A given machine, tool, workpiece combination has finite max MRR
Hypothesis:
Total volume to cut is minimum  Maximum production rate
Model objective:
Find minimum volume stock for a given part

-- Near-net shape stocks (use casting, forging, …)

-- Minimum enclosing volumes of 3D shapes
Models:
- minimum enclosing cylinder for a rotational part
- minimum enclosing rectangular box for a milled part

Solving:
-- requires some knowledge of computational geometry
Analysis: Machining Economics..

Model objective:
Find optimum operations plan and tools for a given part

Example: 

or 
or

??
Model: Process Planning
- Machining volume, tool selection, operations sequencing

Solving:
- in general, difficult to optimize
Analysis: process parameters optimization

Model objective:
Find optimum feed, cutting speed to [maximize MRR]/[minimize cost]/…

Feed:
Higher feed  higher MRR

Finish cutting:

surface finish  feed

 Given surface finish, we can find maximum allowed feed rate
 Process parameters optimization: feed

Rough cutting:
MRR  cutting speed, V
MRR  feed, f

 cannot increase V and f arbitrarily

↑ V  ↑ MRR; surface finish ≠ f(V); energy per unit volume MRR ≠ f(V)

Tool temperature  V, f; Friction wear  V; Friction wear ≠ f

For a given increase in MRR: ↑ V  lower tool life than ↑ f

Optimum feed: maximum allowed for tool [given machine power, tool strength]
 Process parameters optimization: Speed

Model objective:
Given optimum feed, what is the optimum cutting speed

 provided upper limits, but not optimum

Need a relation between tool life and cutting speed (other parameters being constant)

Taylor’s model (empirically based): V tn = constant

 Process parameters optimization: Speed

One batch of large number, Nb, of identical parts

Replace tool by a new one whenever it is worn
Total non-productive time = Nbtl
tl = time to (load the stock + position the tool + unload the part)
Nb be the total number of parts in the batch.
Total machining time = Nbtm
tm = time to machine the part
Total tool change time = Nttc
tc = time to replace the worn tool with a new one
Nt = total number tools used to machine the entire batch.

Cost of each tool = Ct,

Cost per unit time for machine and operator = M.

Nt Nt
Average cost per item: C pr  Mt l  Mt m  M tc  Ct
Nb Nb
Process parameters optimization: Speed

Nt Nt
Average cost per item: C pr  Mt l  Mt m  M tc  Ct
Nb Nb

Let: total length of the tool path = L

L L
tm  M  MLV 1
V V

t = tool life  Nt = (Nb tm)/t  Nt / Nb = t m / t

Taylor’s model Vtn = C’  t = C’ 1/n / V1/n = C/V1/n

Nt tm L V 1/ n L V (1 n ) / n
  
Nb t V C C
Process parameters optimization: Speed

Nt Nt
Average cost per item: C pr  Mt l  Mt m  M tc  Ct
Nb Nb

L
M  MLV 1
V
Nt L V (1 n ) / n

Nb C

1 L
C pr  Mt l  MLV  ( M t c  C t ) V (1 n ) / n
C
Process parameters optimization: Speed

1 L
C pr  Mt l  MLV  ( M t c  C t ) V (1 n ) / n
C

Optimum speed (to minimize costs)

dC pr 2 L (1  n) (1 2 n ) / n
 0   MLV  ( M t c  Ct ) V
dV C n
n
 MC n 

V *  
 ( M tc  Ct ) (1  n) 

Optimum speed (to minimize time)

Nt
Average time to produce part: t pr  tl  t m  tc
Nb
Process parameters optimization: Speed

n
 MC n 
Optimum speed (to minimize costs) V *   
 ( M t c  Ct ) (1  n ) 

Optimum speed (to minimize time)

Nt
Average time to produce part: t pr  tl  t m  tc
Nb
load/unload time
tool change time
machining time

Nt
t pr  tl  t m  tc
Nb Substitute, differentiate, solve for V*
L Nt L V (1 n ) / n
tm  
V Nb C
Process Planning
The process plan specifies:

operations
tools, path plan and operation conditions
setups
sequences
possible machine routings
fixtures
S4
S3

4 x counterbored holes S10

S5 S6

S2

S1

S7

S9

S8
groove 5mmX5mm
 Process Planning Job # : Stock: bar stock diameter: 105 Batch size= N pieces
Fixture: 3-jaw chuck on lathe; Strap clamp + parallel bars on drill-press V: cutting speed m/min
f : feed mm/rev
S: spindle rpm
4 x counterbored holes Legend: d: depth of cut mm
L: Tool path length, min
Tc: cutting time, min
Ts: setup time, min

Description V f S d L Tc Ts
Setup 1: Part in chuck

[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S4 to 104

groove 5mmX5mm
[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S2 to 55

[HSS 1-pt tool] face S1

S4
[HSS 1-pt tool] face S3
S3
[Drill in tailstock] Center drill
S10
S5 S6
[Drill in tailstock] Drill 32
S2
Setup 2: Chuck part on S4
S1
[HSS 1-pt tool] turn S5 to 60,
face S10, fillet edge on S4

S7 [HSS 1-pt tool] Face S6

[5mm groove cutter] Groove S9

Setup 3: Clamp part on Drill press,

Locate using: S3, S7
[Center drill] mark, center-drill 4 holes
S9
[7.5mm Drill] drill 4 holes 7.5
S8
[10mm counterbore] Counterbore 5mm
Operation sequencing examples (Milling)

big-hole  step  small hole

step  hole
or
or
small hole  step  big-hole
hole  step
or
…
Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Casting

Forming

Sheet metal processing

Powder- and Ceramics Processing

Plastics processing

Cutting

Joining

Surface treatment
Joining Processes

Types of Joints:
1. Joints that allow relative motion (kinematic joints)
2. Joints that disallow any relative motion (rigid joints)

Uses of Joints:
1. To restrict some degrees of freedom of motion
2. If complex part shape is impossible/expensive to manufacture
3. To allow assembled product be disassembled for maintenance.
4. Transporting a disassembled product is sometimes easier/feasible
Joining Processes

Fusion welding: joining metals by melting  solidification

Solid state welding: joining metals without melting

Brazing: joining metals with a lower mp metal

Soldering: joining metals with solder (very low mp)

Gluing: joining with glue

Mechanical joining: screws, rivets etc.

 Fusion welding
Flame: 3000C

Oxy-acetylene welding

Arc welding robotic

manual

arc: 30,000C

Gas shielded arc welding MIG TIG

Argon

Al Ti, Mg,
Thin sections
 Fusion welding.. Deep, narrow welds

Aerospace, medical, automobile body panels

Plasma arc welding
Faster than TIW, slower than Laser

Nd:YAG and CO2 lasers, power ~ 100kW

Laser beam welding Fast, high quality, deep, narrow welds

deep, narrow welds, expensive

Electron beam welding
Solid state welding

Diffusion welds between very clean, smooth pieces of metal, at 0.3~0.5Tm

Cold welding (roll bonding) coins, bimetal strips

 Solid state welding..

Ultrasonic welding

Ultrasonic wire bonder

25m Al wire on IC Chip Medical, Packaging, IC chips, Toys

Materials: metal, plastic

- clean, fast, cheap

 Resistance welding
Welding metal strips: clamp together, heat by current

Spot welding

Spot welding Spot welds on a pan Robotic Spot welding on auto body

Seam welding

resistance welded petrol tank

resistance seam welding
 Brazing

Tm of Filler material < Tm of the metals being joined

Torch brazing Furnace brazing

Common Filler materials: copper-alloys, e.g. bronze

Common applications: pipe joint seals, ship-construction

Soldering
Tin + Lead alloy, very low Tm (~ 200C)

Main application: electronic circuits

 Gluing

Adhesive type Notes Applications

Acrylic two component thermoplastic; quick fiberglass, steel, plastics, motor
setting; impact resistant, strong impact magnets, tennis racquets
and peel strength
Anaerobic thermoset; slow, no-air curing – cures in sealing of nut-and-bolts, close-
presence of metal ions fitting holes and shafts, casting
micro-porosities etc.
Epoxy strongest adhesive; thermoset; high tensile metal parts (especially Nickel),
strength; low peel strength ceramic parts, rigid plastics
Cyanoacrylate thermoplastic; high strength; rapid aerobic [common brand: Crazy glue™]
curing in presence of humidity plastics, rubber, ceramics, metals
Hot melt thermoplastic polymers; rigid or flexible; footwear, cartons and other
applied in molten state, cure on cooling packaging boxes, book-binding
Polyacrylate esters Pressure sensitive adhesives all types of tapes, labels, stickers,
(PSA) decals, envelops, etc.
Phenolic thermoset, oven curing, strong but brittle acoustic padding, brake lining,
clutch pads, abrasive grain bonding
Silicone thermoset, slow curing, flexible gaskets and sealants
Formaldehyde thermoset joining wood, making plywood
Urethane thermoset, strong at large thickness fiberglass body parts, concrete gap
filling, mold repairs
Water-based cheap, non-toxic, safe wood, paper, fabric, leather
 Mechanical fasteners

(a) Screws (b) Bolts, nuts and washers (c) Rivets

(a) pneumatic carton stapler (b) Clips (c) A circlip in the gear drive of a kitchen mixer

Plastic wire clips

Plastic snap-fasteners

Wire  conductor: crimping

Traditional Manufacturing Processes

Casting

Forming

Sheet metal processing

Powder- and Ceramics Processing

Plastics processing

Cutting

Joining

Surface treatment
 Surface treatment, Coating, Painting

Post-production processes
Only affect the surface, not the bulk of the material

1. Improving the hardness

2. Improving the wear resistance
3. Controlling friction, Reduction of adhesion, improving the lubrication, etc.
4. Improving corrosion resistance
5. Improving aesthetics
 Mechanical hardening

Shot peening

Shot peening precision auto gears [source: www.vacu-blast.co.uk]

Laser peening

[source: www.uwinint.co.kr]
 Case hardening

Process Dopant Procedure Notes Applications

Carburizing C Low-carbon steel part in 0.5 ~ 1.5mm case gets Gears, cams,
oven at 870-950C with to 65 HRC; poor shafts, bearings
excess CO2 dimension control
CarboNitriding C and N Low-carbon steel part in 0.07~0.5mm case, up Nuts, bolts,
oven at 800-900C with to 62 HRC, lower gears
excess CO2 and NH3 distortion
Cyaniding C and N Low-carbon steel part in 0.025~0.25mm case, nuts, bolts,
bath of cyanide salts with up to 65 HRC gears, screws
30% NaCN
Nitriding N Low-carbon steel part in 0.1~0.6mm case, up to tools, gears,
oven at 500-600C with 1100 HV shafts
excess NH3
Boronizing B Part heated in oven with Very hard, wear Tool and die
Boron containing gas resistant case, steels
0.025~0.075mm
Vapor deposition

Deposition of thin film (1~10 m) of metal

Sputtering: important process in IC Chip manufacture

 Thermal spraying

High velocity oxy-fuel spraying

Tungsten Carbide / Cobalt Chromium Coating

Thermal metal powder spray on roll for Paper Manufacturing Industry

Plasma spray

[source: www.fst.nl/process.htm]
 Electroplating
Deposit metal on cathode, sacrifice from anode

chrome-plated auto parts

copper-plating

Anodizing Metal part on anode: oxide+coloring-dye deposited using electrolytic process

Painting

Type of paints:

Enamel: oil-based; smooth, glossy surface

Lacquers: resin based; dry as solvent evaporates out; e.g. wood varnish
Water-based paints: e.g. wall paints, home-interior paints

Painting methods

Dip coating: part is dipped into a container of paint, and pulled out.
Spray coating:  most common industrial painting method
Electrostatic spraying: charged paint particles sprayed to part using voltage
Silk-screening: very important method in IC electronics mfg
Painting Electrostatic Spray Painting

Spray Painting in BMW plant

Silk screening
Summary

These notes covered processes: cutting, joining and surface treatment

We studied one method of modeling a process, in order to optimize it

We introduced the importance and difficulties of process planning.

Further reading: Chapters 24, 21, 30-32: Kalpajian & Schmid