Machine Tools and Machining

Machining: A Subtractive Type Manufacturing Process which Imparts Desired

Shape, Size, and Finish to the Product by Removing Material in the Form of
Chips by a Suitable Cutting Tool and by Providing Suitable Relative Motion
Between the Work piece and Cutting Tool

Cutting Tool: Removes Excess Material through Direct Mechanical Contact

 Tool

Machine Tool: Provides Necessary Relative Motion Between the Work piece
and Tool

Conventional and Non-Conventional Machining

 According to type of CUTTING TOOLS
Machining Processes

Using SINGLE-Point Using MULTI-Point Using ABRASIVES

Cutting Tools Cutting Tools as Cutting Tools

 Turning  Milling  Grinding

 Step Turning  Drilling  Honing
 Taper Turning  Reaming  Lapping
 Form Turning  Tapping  Super-Finishing
 Contour Turing  Hobbing  Polishing
 Facing  Broaching  Buffing
 Necking  Sawing
 Parting-Off
 Boring
 Counter-Boring
 Counter-Sinking
 Shaping
 Planing
 The Lathe

The Lathe is machine tool on which surfaces of

revolution can be produced
Generatrix and Directrix

Generation of Various Surfaces in a Machining Operation

Generatrix Directrix Process Surface Machining
Obtained Process
Straight Line Straight Line Tracing Planar Surface Shaping,
Planing
Circular Straight Line Tracing Cylindrical Turning
Circular Straight Line Generation Planar Surface Milling
Plain Curve Circular Tracing Surface of Contour
Revolution Turning,
Boring,
DESIGN and TERMINOLOGY of the ENGINE LATHE
The Essential Components of an Engine Lathe are
1. Bed
2. Headstock Assembly 5. Feed Rod
3. Tailstock Assembly 6. Leadscrew
4. Carriage Assembly 7. Quick Change Gearbox

Tailstock

Bed
Lathe Bed

Rib
Headstock assembly (belt driven)
Belt Drive
Driver shaft

Compound Belt Drive

Driver shaft
Tailstock assembly
Carriage assembly
Rack and Pinion
Specification of Lathe
Size of a Lathe is Designated by :
1. Swing: This is the maximum diameter of work piece that can be rotated
on a lathe.
2. Maximum distance between headstock and tailstock
centres: Indicates the Maximum Length of work piece that can be
mounted between centers.
3. Length of Bed
 Machining parameters
Cutting Velocity Cutting Velocity (m/min)
Feed
Depth of cut πDN
Surface roughness
V
1000
Different types of Lathes
1. ENGINE Lathe: Suitable for individual part production or modification, not
suitable for repetitive production

2. SPEED Lathe: High spindle speeds are available, usually have only a
headstock, a tailstock, and a simple tool post mounted on a light bed, mainly
used for wood turning, polishing or metal spinning

Speed Lathe

3. TOOLROOM Lathe: Most-accurate version, versatile to meet the

requirements of tool and die work, suitable for smaller parts
4. GAP-BED Lathe: section of the bed adjacent to headstock is removed to
permit larger swing
5. WHEEL Lathe: Designed for turning railway-car wheels
Types of Tool Post
1. Ring and rocker
2. Four way turret
3. Quick change
6. TURRET Lathe
 A longitudinally feedable hexagon turret replaces the tailstock
 Ordinary turret lathes use the 11 station tooling setups for complete
machining of a piece and minimize machine controlling time.
 SIX tools can be mounted on the hexagon turret
 Turret can be rotated about the vertical axis to bring each tool into the
operating position and the entire unit can be translated parallel to the
ways either manually or by power
7. VERTICAL Lathe

8. AUTOMATIC or SCREW –CUTTING Lathe: Mechanical automation

9. NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC) or Computer NC TURNING CENTERS

TAPER TURNING
Three Methods for turning External & Internal Tapers on a Lathe
Swiveling the Compound Rest
Setting over the tailstock
Using a taper turning attachment
Cutting tools

Geometry, cutting temperature, chip breaker,

coolant, Shear angle, throw away type tool,

Drill bit geometry,

TYPICAL OPERATIONS PERFORMED on a LATHE
STRAIGHT or CYLINDRICAL or PLAIN TURNING
FACING
TAPER TURNING
CHAMFERING
PARTING or CUTTING-OFF and NECKING

CONTOUR TURNING
FORM TURNING
DRILLING
BORING
REAMING
THREAD CUTTING
 Workholding in Lathe

1. Holding in chuck
2. Holding between centers
3. Holding in a collet
4. Mounting on the faceplate
5. Mounting on the carriage
 Holding between centers

Live center Dead center Face plate Lathe dog

Half center
Holding in a collet
Forms a collar around the object to be held and exerts a
strong clamping force

Advantages:

1. Strong clamping force

2. Speed of chucking is less
3. Self-centering
4. Resistance against being untightened
5. Considerably high level of precision
Holding in a Mandrel Types:
1.Solid mandrel
2.Gang mandrel
3.Cone mandrel

Solid mandrel
Cone mandrel

Nut mandrel Gang mandrel

Mounting on the carriage

• Internal turning / Boring

• Steady and follow rest
Work holding in a drilling machine

1. Vice
2. Jig
 Shape of the slideway depends on
Slideways
1. Load carrying capacity
2. ease of manufacturing
3. ease of chip disposal
4. effective lubrication
5. position of slideways

Different types of slideways used in machine tools

 Rotational Speed in Turning ( N in RPM ) is Related to Desired Cutting Speed (V in m/min)
at the Surface of the Cylindrical Workpiece (at the Larger Diameter D1 in mm) by
1000 V
N (1)
π D1
 Feed Rate ( s ) in Turning is Generally Expressed in as mm/rev.

 Linear Travel Rate s L  s.N (2)

D1  D2
 Depth of Cut t  (3)
2

Length of the Workpiece Machined L

 Machining Time, Tm   (min.) (4)
Linear Travel Rate s.N

Volume of Material Re moved (π D12  π D22 )L 1

 Material Re moval Rate (MRR)  
Machining Time 4 Tm
Using Expressions of Machining Time (Eq. 4) and Rotational Speed (Eq.1)
(π D12  π D22 )L s.N (D  D2 ) (D1  D2 ) 1000V
MRR   MRR  π 1 s
4 L 2 2 πD1
(D1  D2 )
Using Expression for Depth of Cut (Eq. 3) and Approximating 1
2 D1
 MRR  1000 V . s . t (mm 3 / min) (5)
Tool geometry
Milling
Milling is the process of machining flat, curved, or irregular
surfaces by feeding the workpiece against a rotating cutter
containing a number of cutting edges.

The milling machine consists basically of a motor driven

spindle, which mounts and revolves the milling cutter, and a
reciprocating adjustable worktable, which mounts and feeds
the workpiece.
Classification of milling machines:
Vertical |
Horizontal __

Generally milling machines have self-contained electric

drive motors, coolant systems, variable spindle speeds, and
power-operated table feeds
Milling Machine
1. Column
and knee
type
2. Bed type
3. Planer
type

Column and knee type

 Types of milling operations
(Depending upon the type of milling cutter being used)

Slab milling Face milling End milling

Milling Cutters

Cutters for (a) straddle milling, (b) form milling, (c)

slotting, and (d) slitting with a milling cutter.
Milling Cutter Nomenclature
Tooth, Cutting edge, Tooth face, Rake surface, Clearance
surface, Rake angle, Clearance angle (Primary and
secondary), Flute, Land, Heel, Keyways, Hole diameter,
Outside diameter, Width, Pitch of teeth
 Milling cutters are usually made of high-speed steel
• The pitch refers to the angular distance between like or
adjacent teeth.
• The pitch is determined by the number of teeth. The tooth face
is the forward facing surface of the tooth that forms the cutting
edge.
• The land is the narrow surface behind the cutting edge on each
tooth.
• The rake angle is the angle formed between the face of the
tooth and the centerline of the cutter.
• The primary clearance angle is the angle of the land of each
tooth measured from a line tangent to the centerline of the
cutter at the cutting edge.
• This angle defines the land of each tooth and provides
additional clearance for passage of cutting oil and chips.
• The hole diameter determines the size of the arbor necessary
to mount the milling cutter.
 Up milling and Down milling

1. Milling cutter,
2. Work piece,
3. Direction of rotation of cutter (primary motion),
4. Feed direction of work piece (secondary motion)
Up-milling –
 
It does not require a backlash eliminator.
It is safer in operation (the cutter does not climb on the work).
Loads on teeth are acting gradually.
Cutting force acts upwards during machining and this will try to lift the workpiece.
Built-up edge (BUE) fragments are absent from the machined surface.
The milling cutter is not affected by the sandy or scaly surfaces of the work.
Chips accumulate in front of the cutter during machining. So chips interfere with the cutting
action and hence machined surface is not smooth.
 

Down milling –

•Fixtures are simpler and less costly, as cutting forces are acting downward.
•Flat workpieces or plates that cannot be firmly held can be machined by down-milling.
•Tool blunting is less likely.
•Down-milling is characterized by fewer tendencies of chattering and vibration, which leads to
improved surface finish.
•Down-milling should not be attempted if machines do not have enough rigidity and are not
provided with backlash eliminators. Under such circumstances, the cutter climbs up on the WP
and the arbor and spindle may be damaged.
Machining parameters πDN
V
Cutting Velocity: 1000
Feed : Feed per tooth (fz), Feed per cutter revolution (frev), Feed per minute (fm)
fm = N.frev = fz.Z.N (Z=number of teeth)

Depth of cut:

Surface roughness

Backlash (Lost motion)

backlash eliminator
Face-milling operation showing (a) action of an insert in face milling; (b) climb
milling; (c) conventional milling; (d) dimensions in face milling.
The width of cut, w, is not necessarily the same as the cutter radius.
Machined surface features in face milling
Effect of Insert
Shape on
Feed Marks on
a Face-Milled
Surface

Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks on a face-milled surface:
(a) small corner radius, (b) corner flat on insert, and (c) wiper, consisting of small radius
followed by a large radius which leaves smoother feed marks. (d) Feed marks due to
various insert shapes.
 The effect of the lead angle on the
undeformed chip thickness in face milling.
Note that as the lead angle increases, the
chip thickness decreases, but the length of
contact (i.e., chip width) increases. The
edges of the insert must be sufficiently large
to accommodate the contact length
increase.

 Lead angle of insert has a direct

influence on undeformed chip thickness
 As the lead angle increases, undeformed
chip thickness decreases, length of contact
increases
 Range of lead angles = 0-45
 X-sectional area of undeformed chip
remains constant
 As lead angle decreases, there is a
smaller vertical force comp (axial force)
 Ratio of cutter diameter, D, to width of
cut should be no less than 3:2
 T-slot cutting with a milling cutter

(a) Relative position of the cutter and insert as it first engages the workpiece in face
milling. (b) Insert positions towards the end of cut. (c) Examples of exit angles of
insert, showing desirable (positive or negative angle) and undesirable (zero angle)
positions. In all figures, the cutter spindle is perpendicular to the page and rotates
clockwise.
Schematic illustration of a five-axis profile milling machine. Note that there are three
principal linear and two angular movements of machine components.
The point angle, or the angle formed at
the tip of the drill, is determined by the
material the drill will be operating in. Harder
materials require a larger point angle, and
softer materials require a sharper angle.
Drilling machine

Bench type drilling machine

Radial drilling machine
Gang drilling machine
Reamer
Trepanning tool
Hand Taps
• Cutting tools used to cut internal threads
• Made of high quality tool steel, hardened and ground
• Two, three, or four flutes cut lengthwise across threads to form cutting
edges
– Provide room for chips
– Admit cutting fluid to lubricate tap
• End of shank square for tap wrench

 Taper
– Tapered from end six threads
– Used to start thread easily
– Used for tapping blind and through holes
 Plug
– Tapered for three threads
– Tread hole through workpiece
 Bottoming tap
– Not tapered but chamfered at end
– Used for threading to bottom of blind hole
Tap Drill
• The drill used to make the hole prior to tapping is called a tap drill.
• Theoretically, it should be equal in diameter to the minor diameter of the
screw that will be fitted into the tapped hole.
 Tap Drill Size
• Hole drilled to correct tap drill size
– Leave proper amount of material
for tap to cut thread (75%)

1
TDS  D -
N

A = body size
B = tap drill size
C = minor diameter

Find tap drill size for a 7/8 in. –9NC tap TDS = tap drill size
D = major diameter of tap
7 1
TDS  - N = number of threads per inch

8 9
 .875  .111  .764 in.
Tap Wrenches

• Two types of tap wrenches are available.

• The selection of tap wrench depends on the tap size.
• A T-handle tap wrench is used with all small taps while the Hand Tap
Wrench is used with large taps.
Common Tapping Problems

• Overload due to poor lubrication leads to tap failure, wear

• Difficult to remove broken taps from holes
• Tearing of threads when backing out
• In soft materials taps stick to the work.
• In hard materials (SS, Ti, Inconel, Super alloys),
• Back rake angle +30to +50 and helical flutes.
External Thread Cutting

Die –Resembles a hardened nut with gullets and cutting edges.

- Eventually, it could be adjustable (Easy backing out, Wear
compensation)
- Beveled edges for starting/guiding.
- Kept in a die stock with handle. Self-opening dies for fast return of the
tool.