Lecture 2

Introduction
to
Computer Networks and the Internet
 Chapter 1: roadmap

1. what is the Internet?

2. network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
3. network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure
4. delay, loss, throughput in networks
5. protocol layers, service models
6. networks under attack: security
7. history
Introduction 1-2
 What’s the Internet: A SERVICE VIEW

mobile network

1. Infrastructure that provides

services to applications global ISP

home
2. Provides programming network
interface to apps regional ISP

institutional
network

1-3
Infrastructure that provides services to Applications
Applications include
 Electronic mail, Web surfing, social networks, instant messaging, video
streaming, distributed games, peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing, and much, much
more.
 The applications are said to be Distributed applications, since they involve
multiple end systems that exchange data with each other.

 Importantly, Internet applications run on end systems—they do not run in the

packet switches in the network core.

 Although packet switches facilitate the exchange of data among end systems,
they are not concerned with the application that is the source or sink of data.
 Explanation
 Suppose you have an exciting new idea for a distributed Internet application.

How might you go about transforming this idea into an actual Internet application?

 Because applications run on end systems, you are going to need to write programs
that run on the end systems.
 Write your programs in Java, C, or Python.
 Now, because you are developing a distributed Internet application, the programs
running on the different end systems will need to send data to each other.
How does one program running on one end system instruct the Internet to deliver
data to another program running on another end system?
Internet as a platform for applications
 End systems attached to the Internet provide an Application Programming
Interface (API) that specifies how a program running on one end system asks the
Internet infrastructure to deliver data to a specific destination program running on
another end system.

 Internet API is a “Set of Rules” that the sending program must follow so that the
Internet can deliver the data to the destination program.

 Internet provides multiple services to its applications.

Google Login API

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s7wmiS2mSXY
How End Systems access the Internet??
Access Networks

 Access networks, also known as the last mile, consist of the media through
which end systems connect to the Internet.
 In other words, access networks are networks that physically connect end
systems to the first router on a path which connects them to some other end
systems.
Network Interface Adapter
 The network interface adapter enables a computer to attach to a network.
 Since there are so many different types of networks, network adapters are used so that the user
can install one to suit the network to which they want to attach.
 Network interfaces also usually have an address associated with them. One machine may have
multiple such interfaces.
 These interfaces are essentially the physical gateways that connect devices to the Internet.
 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
 Cable Internet
 Fiber To The Home (FTTH)
 Dial-Up
 Satellite
 WiFi
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m9evUZtkEAc
Types of Access Networks
Digital Subscriber Line: DSL 

DSL uses the existing groundwork of telephone lines for an Internet connection. DSL connections are
generally provided by the same company that provides local wired phone access.
The telephone company or telco is the Internet Service Provider or ISP in the case of DSL!

 How DSL Works #

A device on the home user’s end called a DSL modem modulates the digital signals that a computer
outputs into high-frequency analog audio signals that are out of the human voice and hearing range.
 The telephone wire’s frequency spectrum is divided into 3 parts:
 A downstream channel (which is used to receive data), in the 50 kHz to 1 MHz
frequency range or ‘band’
 An upstream channel (used to send data) which takes up the 4 kHz to 50 kHz band
 A regular channel used for telephone conversations taking up the 0 to 4kHz range
 These signals are then carried by telephone wires over to the ISP
 Then, these high-frequency analog signals are converted back to digital
signals using a device at the ISP’s end called a Digital Subscriber Line Access
Multiplexer (DSLAM).
 The signals are then forwarded to the end system that it was meant to reach

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=74_5Chu_2eo
 Siemens DSLAM SURPASS hiX 5625
A DSLAM (Digital Subscriber Line Access Multiplexer) is a network
device, usually at a telephone company central office, that receives
signals from multiple customer Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) connections
and puts the signals on a high-speed backbone line using multiplexing
techniques.
Introduction 1-14
Cable Internet 

In the case of cable Internet, the TV cable company is the ISP and it relies on the
preexisting infrastructure of cable TV to grant Internet access.
 It runs on coaxial cable.
 Coaxial cable has enough of a frequency range to carry TV channels and a stream of
upstream and downstream Internet.
How It Works 
 In essence, cable Internet works very similarly to DSL.
 A device on both the user’s end and the ISP’s end modulates the analog signals to digital
and vice versa.
Slower During Peak Hours 
 However, cable Internet can be slower during peak hours, when a majority of users are
online at once. This is because cable Internet is a shared broadcast medium: every
signal that comes from the ISP is sent to every single home regardless of which one it
was meant for.
 Access net: cable network
cable headend

cable splitter
modem

C
O

V V V V V V N
I I I I I I D D T
D D D D D D A A R
E E E E E E T T O
O O O O O O A A L
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Channels

frequency division multiplexing: different channels

Introduction
transmitted in different frequency bands 1-16
Hybrid Fiber Coax 
 Usually, cable Internet works with a combination of coaxial cable and optic
fiber where the fiber connects optical nodes that exist in every neighborhood
to the ISP and coaxial cable further connects the nodes to the houses.
 This is sometimes referred to as a hybrid fiber coax (HFC).
 Access net: home network
wireless
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access router, firewall, NAT

point (54 Mbps)
wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)
Introduction 1-18
 Enterprise access networks (Ethernet)

institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router

Ethernet institutional mail,

switch web servers

• typically used in companies, universities, etc

 10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
 today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet switch

Introduction 1-19
 Wireless access networks
• shared wireless access network connects end system to router
• via base station aka “access point”

wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access

 within building (100 ft)  provided by telco (cellular)
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54 operator, 10’s km
Mbps transmission rate  between 1 and 10 Mbps
 3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet

to Internet
Introduction 1-20
COMMUNICATION MEDIA
 Data needs to be transmitted from one end system to another over a medium.
There are two kinds of media: 
 Guided 
 Unguided  bit: propagates between
Each has its own advantages and disadvantages. transmitter/receiver pairs
 physical link: what lies
between transmitter &
receiver
 guided media:
 signals propagate in solid media:
copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely, e.g., radio
Guided Media

A medium in which the signal is transported on a confined

pathway is called guided.

Twisted Pair Copper Wire

 This kind of wire is used in DSL and Dial-Up.
 It consists of pairs of copper wires that are twisted together to
reduce electrical interference.
 Each wire is about a milimeter thick and is one communication
link.
 Generally, several pairs are bundled together in a protective
plastic or rubber wrapping.
Guided Media
Coaxial Cable
 Cable Internet runs on coaxial cables. A coaxial cable consists of
one copper wire surrounded by an insulating material, followed by a
mesh-like cylindrical metallic shield, followed by another insulating
cover.

Fiber Optics
 Fiber optic cables carry light instead of electrical signals.
 Metallic media suffer from electrical noise and interference from
nearby electrical sources such as mains wiring.
 Since optical fiber carries signals in the form of light, it is not
susceptible to the abundant electrical noise and interference.
 Optical fibers are frequently used in public and enterprise networks
when the distance between the communication devices is larger
than one kilometer.
The Internet Is Under the Sea, Not in the Clouds! 

 Most cross country connections, in fact, are made over fiber optic cable
under the sea.

 If you’re more interested in how underwater cables work, here is an

interesting YouTube video by Vox called “Thin underwater cables hold the
Internet. See a map of them all.”

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ve810FHZ1CQ
Unguided Media 
 Means of transmission that are not bound by a confined pathway are
called unguided media, such as radio waves.

 Terrestrial Radio Channels 

Radio waves encompass a certain band of the electromagnetic spectrum.
They provide many advantages, such as not needing to be physically wired through a
building, the ability to cross physical barriers like walls and other objects, and allowing
for end systems to be mobile.
However, they also have some disadvantages: they’re considered to be less secure since
interception is relatively easy.
There are 3 kinds of terrestrial radio channels:
 The kind that operate over very short distances 1-2 meters (Bluetooth)
 The kind that operate over a few 10s to a few hundreds of meters (WiFi)
 Those that operate over a range of kilometers (3G, 4G, and LTE)
Network Types
Network Types
There are mainly three types of computer networks based
on their size:

1. Local Area Network (LAN)

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3. Wide area network (WAN)
LAN
 Local Area Network (LAN)
A group of computers and network devices connected together, usually within the
same building. 
 Examples:
 Computer network of a University campus

9A-29
Ethernet 
 Most LANs consist of end hosts connected using Ethernet network adapters to Ethernet
switches. Every Ethernet switch has a limited number of ports, and therefore can
interconnect a limited number of end hosts. Larger networks within a building are
built using multiple Ethernet switches interconnecting different sets of end hosts.
These switches may then be connected to each other and the Internet
WiFi 
 In Wireless LANs or WLANs, a wireless router interconnects different “subnets” and/or
may have connectivity to the Internet, which it can extend to the hosts connected to
it.
.
 MAN
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) is a larger network that usually extents
several buildings in the same city or town.
 In Metropolitan area network various Local area networks are connected with
each other through telephone lines.
 The size of the Metropolitan area network is larger than LANs and smaller than
WANs(wide area networks), a MANs covers the larger area of a city or town.

9A-31
 WAN
 WAN (Wide area network) provides long distance transmission of data.
The size of the WAN is larger than LAN and MAN.
 A WAN can cover country, continent or even a whole world. Internet
connection is an example of WAN.
 Other examples of WAN are mobile broadband connections such as 3G,
4G etc.

9A-32
Wide Area Networks (WAN)

 Wide Area Networks or WANs refer to networks that allow interconnection

across large distances. They may span over cities or even countries.

 WANs are typically optical fiber-based.

 Frame relay, ATM, and SONET/SDH are examples of technologies that may be
in use.

📝 Note: The Internet itself is a whole lot of LANs, interconnected by means of

MANs and WANs.
FOR YOUR INFORMATION

 SONET/SDH
Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and the international
equivalent, Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) carries data as optical
signals over optical fiber, which means that they can cover large distances.
These technologies are incredibly prevalent today.

 Frame Relay 
A frame relay was a popular way to connect your LAN to the Internet or to
provide an interconnection between LANs at two or more company sites.
Type A
header

Payload Type A
header

Payload

ROUTER ROUTER
Significant
geographical
SERVER distance SERVER
Type A
header

Payload

LAN 1 LAN 2

WAN
Network Topologies
Types by Topology

 Computer networks can also be categorized in terms of network topologies.

 These topologies include: bus, ring, star, tree, and mesh.
 Note that these topologies are strictly logical, i.e., they do not dictate how
the wires would be connected physically, but they do dictate how the data
flows in the network.

Topology refers to the way in which the network of computers is connected

 BUS topology
Every end system will receive any signal that is sent on the main
or backbone medium.

A bus topology is a topology for a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all the
nodes are connected to a single cable.

Limitations 
 A break in the cable will disrupt the entire network.
 Only one system can transmit at a time.
 RING Topology
In this topology, end systems communicate with each other through each
other.
So the message travels along the ring passing each system until the target
system itself is reached.
Theoretically, n/2 systems can be transmitting to their adjacent neighbor
at the same time.

 Limitations
 The basic ring topology is unidirectional so n -1 end systems would have
to transfer messages for end system #1 to talk to end system #n
 A break in the cable will disrupt the entire network.
Ring Topology
 A ring topology is a network configuration
in which device connections create a
circular data path.
 Each networked device is connected to
two others, like points on a circle.
Together, devices in a ring topology are
referred to as a ring network.
Tokens used to transmit data
 In a ring network, packets of data travel
from one device to the next until they
reach their destination.
 Most ring topologies allow packets to
travel only in one direction, called
a unidirectional ring network.
 Others permit data to move in either
direction, called bidirectional.
STAR Topology

All end systems talk to each other through one central device such as a router or
switch.

Limitations 
 Hosts can all be transmitting at the same time. However, if the central device
fails, the network is completely down.
Star Topology
 All nodes connect to a hub
 Packets sent to hub
 Hub sends packet to
destination
 Advantages
 Easy to setup
 One cable can not crash
network
 Disadvantages
 One hub crashing downs
entire network
 Uses lots of cable
TREE Topology

 This topology is also known as the star-bus topology.

 It essentially consists of a bunch of star networks connected
together with a large bus.
MESH Topology
In this topology, every end system is directly connected to every other end
system.

Limitations 
 The mesh topology (if physically realized as a mesh):
 Is expensive
 Hard to scale
 Used in specialized applications only
Mesh Topology

 There is not a concept of a central switch, hub

or computer which acts as a central point of
communication to pass on the messages.

 It can be divided into two kinds:

 Fully connected mesh topology (All node are

connected to each other)
 Partially connected mesh topology (not all
the nodes connected to each other)
Hybrid Topology
Transmission Directions
Transmission Directions

 Simplex: One direction only

 Half duplex: Both directions but only one
direction at a time
 Full duplex: send and receive both directions at once
 Simplex Mode
 In this type of transmission mode, data can be sent only in one direction i.e.
communication is unidirectional.
 We cannot send a message back to the sender. Unidirectional communication is
done in Simplex Systems where we just need to send a command/signal, and do
not expect any response back.

 Examples of simplex Mode are loudspeakers, television broadcasting, television

and remote, keyboard and monitor etc.
 Half duplex Mode
 Half-duplex data transmission means that data can be
transmitted in both directions on a signal carrier, but not
at the same time.

 Example of half duplex is a walkie- talkie in which

message is sent one at a time but messages are sent in
both the directions.
Full duplex Mode
 In full duplex system we can send data in both the directions
as it is bidirectional at the same time in other words, data can
be sent in both directions simultaneously.

 Example of Full Duplex is a Telephone Network in which

there is communication between two persons by a telephone
line, using which both can talk and listen at the same time.
HOME TASK

 Reading Assignment (Part of Mid term exam)

CHAPTER N0.1

1.2.1 Access Network (Complete)

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