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Chapter 11: The T Test For Two Related Samples
Chapter 11: The T Test For Two Related Samples
Related Samples
Repeated-Measures Designs
H0: μD = 0
The t Statistic for a Repeated-
Measures Research Design (cont’d.)
• In words, the null hypothesis (H0) says that there
is no consistent or systematic difference
between the two treatment conditions.
• Note that the null hypothesis does not say that
each individual will have a difference score
equal to zero.
• Some individuals will show a positive change
from one treatment to the other, and some will
show a negative change.
Hypothesis Tests for the Repeated-
Measures Design
• On average, the entire population will show a
mean difference of zero.
• Thus, according to the null hypothesis, the
sample mean difference should be near to zero.
• Remember, the concept of sampling error states
that samples are not perfect and we should
always expect small differences between a
sample mean and the population mean.
Hypothesis Tests for the Repeated-
Measures Design (cont’d.)
• The alternative hypothesis states that there is a
systematic difference between treatments that
causes the difference scores to be consistently
positive (or negative) and produces a non-zero
mean difference between the treatments:
H1: μD ≠ 0
• According to the alternative hypothesis, the
sample mean difference obtained in the research
study is a reflection of the true mean difference
that exists in the population.
Comparing Population Means: Hypothesis
Testing with Dependent Samples
Use the following test when the samples are dependent:
d = MD - μD
t
sd / n = sMD
Where
MD d
is the mean of the differences
s sd is the standard deviation of the differences
n is the number of pairs (differences)
p. 358
1. repeated-measure v.s. independent –measure
same/ different individuals tested twice
2. MD, sMD (remember n1 = n2 = n)
D = X2 – X1 , MD = ΣD/n, s2 = SS/(n-1)
sMD = s/n
• t (e.g. p358)
Hypothesis Tests for the Repeated-
Measures Design (cont’d.)
• The bottom of the ratio is the standard error,
which measures how much difference is
reasonable to expect between a sample mean
and the population mean if there is no treatment
effect; that is, how much difference is expected
simply by sampling error. i.e. sMD
obtained difference MD – μD
t = ───────────── = ─────── df = n – 1
standard error sMD
Hypothesis Tests for the Repeated-
Measures Design (cont’d.)
• For the repeated-measures t statistic, all
calculations are done with the sample of
difference scores.
• The mean for the sample appears in the
numerator of the t statistic and the variance of
the difference scores is used to compute the
standard error in the denominator.
Hypothesis Tests for the Repeated-
Measures Design (cont’d.)
• As usual, the standard error is computed by:
s2 s
sMD = ___ or sMD = ___
n n
Measuring Effect Size for the
Repeated-Measures t
• Effect size for the repeated-measures t is
measured in the same way that we measured
effect size for the single-sample t and the
independent-measures t.
• Specifically, you can compute an estimate of
Cohen’s d to obtain a standardized measure of
the mean difference, or you can compute r2 to
obtain a measure of the percentage of variance
accounted for by the treatment effect.
Cohen’s d, r2 , and CI (p. 361)
• estimated d = MD / s
• r2 = t2 / (t2 + df)
Subject X1 X2 D
A 9 16 7
B 25 28 3
C 31 36 5
D 58 61 3
E 72 79 7
Repeated-Measures Versus
Independent-Measures Designs (cont’d.)
• First, notice that all of the subjects show an
increase of roughly 5 points when they move
from treatment 1 to treatment 2.
• Because the treatment difference is very
consistent, the D scores are all clustered close
together will produce a very small value for s2.
• This means that the standard error in the bottom
of the t statistic will be very small.
Repeated-Measures Versus
Independent-Measures Designs (cont’d.)
• Second, notice that the original data show big differences
from one subject to another. For example, subject B has
scores in the 20's and subject E has scores in the 70's.
– These big individual differences are eliminated when the
difference scores are calculated.
– Because the individual differences are removed, the D
scores are usually much less variable than the original
scores.
– Again, a smaller variance will produce a smaller standard
error, which will increase the likelihood of a significant t
statistic.
Repeated-Measures Versus
Independent-Measures Designs (cont’d.)
• Finally, you should realize that there are
potential disadvantages to using a repeated-
measures design instead of independent-
measures.
• Because the repeated-measures design requires
that each individual participate in more than one
treatment, there is always the risk that exposure
to the first treatment will cause a change in the
participants that influences their scores in the
second treatment. error
Repeated-Measures Versus
Independent-Measures Designs (cont’d.)
• For example, practice in the first treatment may
cause improved performance in the second
treatment.
• Thus, the scores in the second treatment may
show a difference, but the difference is not
caused by the second treatment.
• When participation in one treatment influences
the scores in another treatment, the results may
be distorted by order effects; this can be a
serious problem in repeated-measures designs.
Counterbalancing
• One way to deal with time-related factors and
order effect is counterbalance the order of
presentation of treatments: randomly divided
subjects into 2 groups, one from treatment
1treatment 2, the other from treatment 2
treatment 1. (so prior experience helps the 2
treatments equally)
• Another way to deal with this problem: use
independent-measures or a matched-subjects
design (each individual receives only one
treatment and measured only one time).
p. 369
1. the assumptions for repeated-measures t test?
independent, normal
3. matched-subject vs repeated-measures?
similarity: individual differences eliminated
differences: 2 groups of individuals vs 1 group of individuals
p. 369
4. 2 different treatments, 10 scores for each treatment,
how many subjects is needed?
a. independent-measures design?
20
b. repeated-measures design?
10
c. matched-subjects design?
20
Repeated-Measures Versus
Independent-Measures Designs
• examples from another textbook
H0: μ1 = μ2 (i.e. μD = 0)
1. treat this example as the case of 2 dependent
samples
2. treat this example as the case of 2 independent
samples
Comparing Population Means: Hypothesis Testing with
Dependent Samples – Example
11-*
Comparing Population Means: Hypothesis Testing with
Dependent Samples – Example
H0: μd = 0
H1: μd ≠ 0
Reject H0 if
t > t/2, n-1 or t < - t/2,n-1
t > t.025,9 or t < - t.025, 9
t > 2.262 or t < -2.262
11-*
Comparing Population Means: Hypothesis Testing with
Dependent Samples – Example
Step 5: Take a sample and make a decision.
paired (repeated-
measures) test :
11-*
Dependent versus Independent Samples
11-*
another example
The federal government recently granted funds for a
special program designed to reduce crime in high-crime
areas. A study of the results of the program in eight high-
crime areas of Miami, Florida, yielded the following results.
Has there been a decrease in the number of crimes since the inauguration of
the program? Use the .01 significance level. Estimate the p-value.
another example (cont.)
Step 1: H0: μd ≦ 0 H1: μd > 0
Step 2: The 0.01 significance level was chosen
Step 3: Use a t-statistic with the standard deviation
unknown for a paired sample.
Step 4: Reject Ho if t > 2.998
Step 5: = 3.625 sd = 4.8385
independent dependent
(if n1=n2=n) (n pairs)
1 1 sD
sMD sp
n n n
df 2n–2 n–1