Organizational Behaviour

Canadian Edition
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie

Prepared by: Joan Condie

 Chapter 6

Motivation and Reinforcement

Questions
 What is motivation to work?
 How are reinforcement theories linked to motivation?
 What do the content theories suggest about individual
needs and motivation?
 What do the process theories suggest about individual
motivation?
 How can satisfaction and its connection to
performance help bring together the insights of the
motivational theories, leading to an integrated
motivational model?
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
What Is Motivation?
 Motivation = the forces inside an individual that
lead to the level, direction, and persistence of
effort he or she makes at work
 Where
level = amount of effort (great or small)
direction = choice as to where to direct effort when
given alternatives
persistence = time spent continuing to try in
an action

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Three Categories of Motivational
Theories

A. Reinforcement theories
• Emphasize controlling an individual’s behaviour
through manipulating its consequences
B. Content theories
• Identify the needs that motivate individual behaviour,
i.e., the physiological and psychological deficiencies
we feel compelled to reduce
C. Process theories
• Seek to understand the thought processes that
determine behaviour, why a person acts in a certain
way given available rewards and work opportunities
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Reinforcement Approach to Motivation
Reinforcement = the administration of a
consequence as a result of behaviour
Theoretical background:
 Classical conditioning: learning through
association
 Operant conditioning: the process of controlling
behaviour by manipulating consequences
 Law of effect states behaviour resulting in
pleasing outcomes is likely to be repeated &
behaviour resulting in unpleasant outcomes is not
likely to be repeated
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Reinforcement Strategies
 To increase a behaviour:
• Positive reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement
 To decrease a behaviour:
• Punishment
• Extinction

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Increasing Behaviour:
Positive Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement = the administration of

positive consequences that tend to increase the
likelihood of the behaviour being repeated in similar
settings
 Rewards are positive reinforcers if they have the
impact of increasing future behaviour
 The reward must be contingent on the desired
behaviour (law of contingent reinforcement) and
should be given as soon as possible after the
desired behaviour (law of immediate reinforcement)

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Positive Reinforcement
 Shaping is the gradual building of a
behaviour by rewarding successive
approximations leading to the desired
behaviour
 Scheduling of reinforcement is either:
 Continuous reinforcement (desired
behaviour is rewarded every time it occurs)
or
 Intermittent reinforcement (desired
behaviour is rewarded only periodically)
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Scheduling of Reinforcement
 Continuous reinforcement
 Leads to quick acquisition of the desired
behaviour therefore effective in training but
 Costly and less resistant to extinction
 Therefore, after a behaviour is acquired, the
reinforcement schedule changes from
continuous to intermittent in order to maintain it

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Scheduling of Reinforcement
 Intermittent reinforcement can be given in one of
four ways:
 Fixed ratio – reward a specific number of
behaviours
 Fixed interval – reward the first behaviour after
specific time has elapsed
 Variable ratio – reward a random number of
occurrences of the behaviour
 Variable interval – reward at random times
Note that variable schedules lead to more consistent
patterns of behaviour
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Increasing Behaviour:
Negative Reinforcement

Negative reinforcement (or avoidance) = the

withdrawal of negative consequences, which
leads to the likelihood of desirable behaviour
being repeated in a similar setting (i.e., reward
by taking away something bad)
 E.g., more likely to keep work area tidy if it
means supervisor no longer nags

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Decreasing Behaviour: Punishment

Punishment = the administration of

negative consequences that tend to
reduce the likelihood of the behaviour
being repeated in similar settings
 Evidence that well handled punishment for poor
performance can improve performance while
maintaining satisfaction, but punishment seen
as arbitrary or erratic can harm both
satisfaction and performance
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Decreasing Behaviour: Extinction

Extinction = the withdrawal of the reinforcing

consequences for a particular behaviour
 E.g., not responding to someone’s complaints
and whining may lead them to stop doing it in
front of you as they do not receive the attention
they seek

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Issues in Using
Reinforcement Strategies
 Are observed improvements in performance due to
reinforcement or the goal-setting involved (that
holds people accountable for specific
accomplishments)?
 Ethics – use of reinforcement can lead to
demeaning view of people and lead managers to
abuse their power through control over behaviour
 Counterclaim is that control is inevitable part of
manager’s job, and OK if done ethically, fairly and
constructively
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Content Theories of Motivation

1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory

2. ERG Theory
3. Acquired Needs Theory
4. Two-Factor Theory
 Identify the needs that motivate individual behaviour,
i.e., the physiological and psychological deficiencies
we feel compelled to reduce

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory
 Maslow’s pyramid of needs: physiological, safety, social,
esteem, and self-actualization needs
 Those lower on the pyramid claim greater priority
 Research does not support the five levels
 Instead suggests that they more likely operate in a flexible
hierarchy and the importance of each varies with culture
 Appears that higher order needs (esteem and self-
actualization) become more important than lower order
needs (physiological, safety, social) as one moves up
corporate ladder

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
ERG Theory
 Compressed Maslow’s five need categories to three:
existence, relatedness, growth (ERG)
 Offers frustration-regression hypothesis: when a
higher-level need cannot be satisfied (is frustrated) , a
lower level need can become reactivated
 E.g., in a dead-end job where one’s growth needs are
frustrated, relatedness can become a key motivator
 Claims more than one need can be activated at the
same time

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Acquired Needs Theory
 Emphasizes importance of three needs acquired
through experiences:
 Need for achievement (nAch)
 Need for power (nPower)
 Need for affiliation (nAff)
 Research measures these through use of TAT
projective test; McClelland encourages managers to
identify the presence of these needs through
observation and create appropriate work environments

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Acquired Needs Theory
 Needs are associated with work preferences
 High nAch: individual responsibilities, challenging
goals, performance feedback
 High nAff: interpersonal relationships, opportunities
for communication
 High nPower: attention, recognition, opportunity for
influence over others
 Senior executive success associated with high
need for power and low need for affiliation

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Two-factor Theory
(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
 Herzberg:
 Job context is source of dissatisfaction
• Problems with hygiene factors (e.g., pay,
working conditions) lead to dissatisfaction; lack
of problems means lack of dissatisfaction
 Job content is the source of job satisfaction
• Motivator factors (e.g., achievement,
responsibility) link with job performance; if high,
satisfaction high and performance strong

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Two-factor Theory
(or Motivation-Hygiene Theory)
 Validity unconfirmed – not replicated using
different methods
 Still does not explain individual differences,
professional or cultural differences

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Equity Theory
 Adams: we will act to eliminate any
unfairness that we see in the rewards
we receive for our work compared to
what others receive

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Equity Theory
 Suggests person feeling under
rewarded or overrewarded will do
one of following to restore equity:
 Change own work inputs (e.g., effort)
 Change own outcomes received (e.g., ask for raise)
 Leave situation
 Change comparison person
 Psychologically distort the comparisons
 Act to change the inputs or outcomes of comparison
person

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Equity Theory
 Suggests that the ways in which any reward is
received will be affected by equity comparisons; it is
the receiver’s perception that counts, not the reward
giver’s intentions
 Research suggests people who feel underpaid do
reduce the quantity or quality of their work but those
who feel overpaid not as likely to improve their work as
overpayment is not as uncomfortable as
underpayment
 Different results in other cultures; concern over
equality more an issue than equity in collectivistic
cultures
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Expectancy Theory
 Vroom argues that work motivation is determined
by individual beliefs about effort-performance
relationships and work outcomes
 In deciding whether to do something, a person
assesses:
 Expectancy – Can I do it? How hard must I work?
 Instrumentality – What will happen as a result of my
success?
 Valence – How much do I care about those
outcomes?
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Expectancy Theory
 Claims M = E x I x V where
 M is motivation
 E is expectancy
 I is instrumentality
 V is valence
 The multiplier effect means that all must be high
for high motivation, yet even one low one can
destroy motivation
 Generally strong research support

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Job Satisfaction

Job satisfaction = how positively or negatively

individuals feel about their jobs
 Observable informally through observation and
interpretation of behaviour and words
 Measured formally in questionnaires

 E.g., Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire

 E.g., Job Descriptive Index

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Effects of Job Satisfaction
 Link to absenteeism
 Satisfied have lower absenteeism
 Link to turnover
 Dissatisfied more likely to quit
 Link to performance complex
 Satisfaction is NOT good predictor of individual
performance
 Successful performance does seem to lead to greater
satisfaction
 Proper allocation of rewards can increase both
performance and satisfaction
Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
An Integrated Model of Individual
Motivation to Work

Amount and
Individual schedule of

Performance
attributes contingent

Satisfaction
Motivation

extrinsic
rewards
Work
effort Equity
needed comparison

Net amount
Organizational
of valent
support
intrinsic
rewards

Schermerhorn, Hunt, Osborn, Currie Organizational Behaviour, Canadian Edition Copyright 2005 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.
Copyright
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