LECTURES IN

THERMODYNAMICS
Claus Borgnakke
CHAPTER 5

For the 8th Edition of:

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics
Claus Borgnakke, Richard Sonntag
John Wiley & Sons, 2013
 Chapter 5

• Heat Engines and Refrigerators

• The Second Law of Thermodynamics
• The Reversible and Irreversible Process
• The Carnot Cycle
• The Temperature Scales
• The Ideal and Real Machines
• Typical Devices and Applications

2
 Heat Engines and Refrigerators

Historical development of the second law.

Possibility of running heat engines and refrigerators.

Cyclic Machines-Energy Conversion Devices

Heat engines:
To produce work from an energy input of heat.
Steam power plant
Engine (gasoline, diesel)
Gas Turbine

Heat Pumps:
To move energy as heat from lower T to higher T
Refrigerator/Freezer (purpose cooling)
Heat pump (purpose heating)
Air-conditioner (cooling or heating)

3
 Heat Engines

Heat Engines
QH from combustion
Closed loop between components (flow)
Steps giving a cycle repeated in time (piston/cyl. type)
Details are inside the CV only net W and Q’s cross the
CV surface, shown in schematic at bottom. WT
WP, in
. . .
Energy Eq.: 0 = QH  QL  WHE
. . . .
WHE = QH  QL Q L to ambient

Conversion efficiency: Work is net WHE = WT - WP

• • • •
WHE QH QL QL
ηthermal = • = • = 1  •
QH QH QH

. .
Only part of the heat QH is converted to work WHE, the
remaining part is rejected, typically to the ambient.

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 Heat Engines

Example 5.1
A car engine delivers 136 hp to the drive shaft with
a thermal efficiency of 30%. The fuel it burns
releases 35 000 kJ/kg of energy. Find the total rate
of heat rejected to the ambient and the rate of fuel
consumption in kg/s.

Solution _______________________
Thermal efficiency and conversion of hp from Table A.1 we get
. .
W = ηthermal QH = 136 hp × 0.7355 kW/hp = 100 kW
. .
QH = W / ηthermal = 100 / 0.3 = 333 kW
Energy equation gives
. . . .
QL = QH  W = (1 – 0.3) QH = 233 kW
•
Energy release, QH = m• qH so
. 333 kW
m• = QH / qH = 35 000 kJ/kg = 0.0095 kg/s

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 The Refrigerator

Refrigerators/Heat Pumps
Nearly all are closed loop flow between components
Details are inside the CV only net W and Q’s cross the
CV surface, shown in schematic at the bottom.
. . .
Energy Eq.: 0 = QL  QH + W
. . .
W = QH  QL
Conversion ratio:
• •
QL QL
COP = βref = • = • •
W QH  Q L
• •
QH QH
COP = βHP = • = • • Room
W QH  QL
. . . QH
Since QH = QL + W then we have
REF Win
βHP = 1 + βref cb
QL
Coefficient Of Performance gives the heat transfer that
can be pushed by the engine like a locomotive pulls a coal train. TL
6
 The Refrigerator

Example 5.2
A refrigerator in a kitchen has a power input of 150 W and
it rejects 400 W to the kitchen air. Find the rate of heat
taken from the cold space and the COP of the refrigerator.

Solution ________________________________
. .
CV refrigerator with WREF = 150 W and QH = 400 W so
the energy equation gives
. . .
QL = QH  WREF = 400 – 150 = 250 W
and
•
QL 250 W
COP = βref = • = 150 W = 1.67
WREF

Comment: The QL is removed since energy transfers into

the cold space from the warmer kitchen and air is
exchanged when the refrigerator door is opened.

7
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics

The statements of Kelvin-Planck and Clausius

A heat engine cannot convert QH to W 100% Heat cannot be moved from TL to TH with W = 0

Conclusion: Conclusion:
There must be a QL rejected so There must be some Win > 0 so
W = QH – QL QH = Win + QL

η = W / QH < 1 β = QH /Win < ∞

Notice energy equation does not say these are impossible 8

 The Equivalence of Kelvin-Planck to Clausius

Assume a refrigerator can run with W = 0 which is a violation of Clausius, then run a heat engine to
have the same QL. The combination shown as a CV is a heat engine exchanging heat with only one
reservoir (QL net = 0) and some work output, which is a violation of Kelvin Planck.

9
 Perpetual Motion Machines

A perpetual-motion machine of the first kind:

Creates work from nothing or creates energy, violating the energy equation (1 st Law)

A perpetual-motion machine of the second kind:

The machine makes an energy conversion that violates the second law.

A perpetual-motion machine of the third kind:

The machine has no friction and produces no work. (Example: Vibrations in a molecule)

A perpetual-motion machine of the second kind:

10
The Second law of Thermodynamics

11
 The Reversible and Irreversible Processes

A reversible process:
A process can take place and then be reversed to return the system to its original state and
leave the surroundings unchanged. The latter is the most crucial point.

A process can happen and be reversed as

shown. However the surroundings in this case
must supply the work and absorb the heat
transfer. Those two terms are not equivalent.

A near reversible process can take place as

shown. Typically this places certain restrictions
on the process that may be undesirable in a
practical application.

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 Effects Making Processes Irreversible

We illustrate what a reversible process is by showing processes that are not

reversible. These are called irreversible processes and common in most
practical processes.

Friction:
Sliding something against a surface requires a
work input to overcome friction. Work is converted to
internal energy leading to a warmer surface.
Example: brake pads on a car.

In-elastic deformation:
Bending a piece of metal giving a permanent
deformation turns work into internal energy. This is
internal friction called plastic deformation (unlike a
spring action which is elastic, the work input is stored
as potential energy in the spring).

Current through an Ohmic resistor:

A current through a resistance dissipates power
which heats the resistor. You cannot recover the
electrical energy 100%.

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 Effects Making Processes Irreversible
We illustrate what a reversible process is by showing processes that are not reversible.
These are called irreversible processes and common in most practical processes.

Unrestrained
  Expansion:
A process can happen and be reversed as shown.
However the surroundings in this case must
supply the work and absorb the heat transfer.
Those two terms are not equivalent. Flow through
a valve is similar, there a pressure is “lost”.

Heat Transfer over a finite temperature .

Q
difference: T + ∆T T
Heat transferred from a higher T to a lower T
domain cannot be brought back to the higher T
domain without work input (a heat pump). In the
limit of a differential “dT” the heat transfer
approaches a reversible process. This becomes a
very slow process, recall
= CA ∆T

Mixing:
After mixing two gases a complicated process with
work input is required to separate the gases again.
14
The Second Law of Thermodynamics

15
 The Carnot Cycle
The Carnot Cycle
Heat engine in reverse is a refrigerator,
The most efficient heat engine between two constant T
Q’s and W’s change sign.
reservoirs. If ηthermal < 1 then how much less?

Reversible heat transfer: ∆T → 0 i.e. T = Treservoir

Two such processes: TL and TH
Practical devices: P = C, heat exchangers

Process where T changes: adiabatic, Q = 0

Two such processes: Expansion / Compression
Practical devices: Turbine Compressor/Pump

Four processes in Carnot cycle:

1. Reversible isothermal process, QH at TH

2. Reversible adiabatic process T → TL
3. Reversible isothermal process, QL at TL
4. Reversible adiabatic process T → TH

Heat engine: 1-2-3-4-1 …. QH in, QL out

Refrigerator: 1-2-3-4-1 …. QH out, QL in 16
 Two Propositions Regarding Carnot Cycle Efficiency

Proposition I: ηany ≤ ηrev

Proposition II: ηrev 1 = ηrev 2

Proof of both starts assuming they are not true.

Let the better machine be a heat engine and the
other work as a refrigerator (since reversible) with
same QL. The combination is an impossible heat
engine as stated by Kelvin Planck.

This implies the initial assumption is wrong.

These statements are alternative statements to

Kelvin-Planck and Clausius

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 The Thermodynamic Temperature Scale

Since TH and TL are the only common features when two reversible heat engines are
compared it follows:
QL
Proposition II: ηrev 1 = ηrev 2 = η(TH, TL) = 1 – Q = 1 – ψ(TL, TH)
H
where ψ is a function. Further consideration puts some restrictions on the functional form
to be like ψ(TL, TH) = f(TL)/f(TH). The thermodynamic temperature scale is selected
to have f(T) = T.
TL QL
ψ(TL, TH) = =
TH QH
This gives the Carnot heat engine efficiency as
QL TL
ηCarnot = 1 – Q = 1 – T
H H

This particular choice was done by Lord Kelvin defining the Kelvin scale [K]. The
corresponding English unit scale is Rankine [R].

Ideal Gas Temperature: Pv = RT

By considering a Carnot cycle it can be proved that this T equals the thermodynamic
temperature scale.
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 The Ideal Versus Real Machines
Real efficiency will be less than the Ideal Carnot cycle
value. The ideal values can still provide some insight
to the real device trend with a variation in T. TL = 293 K


Heat engines η ↑ with TH ↑ and TL ↓

QL TL
ηreal thermal = 1 – Q ≤ 1 – T
H H

First = is from energy eq. and definition, TH

the last term is Carnot value (max possible).

Typical values from some common heat engines:
TL
Coal fired power plant: TH = 800 K, TL = 325 K so η ≤ 1 – T = 0.60, ηreal ≈ 45%
H

TL
Nuclear power plant: TH = 550 K, TL = 325 K so η ≤ 1 – = 0.40, ηreal ≈ 30%
TH
TL
Gas turbine natural gas: TH = 800 K, TL = 325 K so η ≤ 1 – T = 0.60, ηreal ≈ 50%
H

TL
Car gasoline engine: TH = 2000 K, TL = 900 K so η ≤ 1 – T = 0.55, ηreal ≈ 35%
H 19
 The Ideal Versus Real Machines

Real coefficient of performance efficiency β or COP will

be less than the Ideal Carnot cycle value. The ideal values βref
can still provide some insight to the real device trend with βHP
a variation in T.
Refrigerators/heat pumps β ↑ with ∆T ↓
QL TL
βreal ref = ≤
QH  QL TH  TL
TH = 293 K TL = 293 K
Ref: TL HP: TH
First = is from energy eq. and definition,
the last term is Carnot value (max possible).

Typical values from some common refrigerators/heat pumps:

TL
Refrigerator: TH = 325 K, TL = 270 K so β≤ = 4.9, β real ≈ 3.5
TH  TL
TL
Deep Freezer: TH = 325 K, TL = 250 K so β ≤ = 3.3, β real ≈ 2
TH  TL
TL
Air conditioner: TH = 320 K, TL = 280 K so β≤ = 7, β real ≈ 4
TH  TL 20
 The Ideal Versus Real Machines

Example 5.4
A heat engine receives 1 MW at 550oC and rejects heat to the ambient at 300 K while it
produces a rate of work as 450 kW. We want to know the rate of heat discarded to the
ambient and the thermal efficiency and compare both to a Carnot heat engine operating
between the same two reservoirs.

Solution ________________________________

CV Heat engine.
. . .
Energy Eq.: QL = QH  W = 1000 – 450 = 550 kW
. .
Efficiency: ηthermal = W / QH = 450/1000 = 0.45
. . TL 300
Carnot: ηCarnot = 1 – QL/QH = 1 – =1– = 0.635
TH 550 + 273
For same source the work becomes
. .
W = ηCarnot QH = 0.635 × 1000 kW = 635 kW
. . .
Energy Eq.: QL = QH  W = 1000 – 635 = 365 kW

21
 The Ideal Versus Real Machines
Example 5.5
An air conditioner operates like a refrigerator as shown. It should remove 4 kW from a
room at 24oC to the outside atmosphere at 35oC. We want an estimated for the required
work but we will not analyze the details of the cycle, which is deferred to Chapter 9, but
use a lower estimate assuming a Carnot cycle.

Solution ________________________
CV refrigeration cycle, COP for the cycle is A/C in cooling mode
•
QL TL 273 + 24
βref = • = = = 27
W T H  TL 35  24
so the work will be
. .
W = QL / βref = 4 kW / 27 = 0.15 kW

Comments: The βref is too optimistic a real A/C has maybe 5. The heat transfers do
require a ∆T to function. Cycle should have TH = 45oC and TL = 18oC to be realistic.
22
 Real Heat Exchangers

Actual devices
The basic models for heat transfer gives
. .
QH = CH ∆TH and QL = CL ∆TL
where CH and CL depend on the heat exchanger
details. This makes the cycle high-low T’s different
from the reservoir temperatures.

Heat engine cycle:

Thigh = TH  ∆TH and Tlow = TL + ∆TL

Temperature span for heat engine cycle

∆THE = Thigh Tlow = TH  TL  (∆TH + ∆TL)

Heat pump cycle:

Thigh = TH + ∆TH and Tlow = TL  ∆TL

Temperature span for heat pump cycle

∆THP = Thigh Tlow = TH  TL + (∆TH + ∆TL)
Conclusion: This lowers ηthermal and βHP . 23
 The Ideal Versus Real Machines
Example 5.5 extended
An air conditioner operates by removing 4 kW from a room at 24oC to the outside
atmosphere at 35oC. The actual COP is assumed to be a fraction (1/4.5) of the
corresponding Carnot cycle COP. How much power does it require?
If the thermostat is lowered from 24oC to 20oC find the new power requirement.

Solution __________________________
CV refrigeration cycle, COP for the cycle is
•
QL
βref = • = βCarnot ref /4.5
W
1 TL 1 273 + 24
= 4.5 = 4.5 =6
TH  TL 35  24
so the work will be
. .
W = QL / βref = 4 kW / 6 = 0.667 kW
When the thermostat is lowered then:
•
QL 1 TL 1 273 + 20
βref = • = βCarnot ref /4.5 = 4.5 = 4.5 = 4.34
W TH  TL 35  20
24
and we can redo the work, but is that enough? What are we missing?
 The Ideal Versus Real Machines
Example 5.5 extended continued

As TL ↘ ⇒ βref ↘ and ∆Tleak = ( TH  TL ) ↗

.
First condition: Q leak = Cleak ∆Tleak so 4 kW = Cleak × (35 – 24) K

Cleak = 4 kW / 11 K = (4/11) kW/K

Assume Cleak does not change (construction, insulation, wind, …) then

.
Q leak new = Cleak ∆Tleak new = (4/11) kW/K × (35 – 20) K = 5.455 kW
. .
For steady state ( QL = Q leak new ) so the new power requirement becomes
. .
W = QL / βref = 5.455 kW / 4.34 = 1.257 kW
Significantly higher, it is very sensitive to TL.

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Processes limited by first law (energy eq.)

26
Processes limited by second law

27
Some Historical Event Related to Thermodynamics

28