LECTURES IN

THERMODYNAMICS
Claus Borgnakke
CHAPTER 10

For the 8th Edition of:

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics
Claus Borgnakke, Richard Sonntag
John Wiley & Sons, 2013
 Chapter 10

• The Brayton Cycle, Gas Turbine

– Regenerator, Configurations, Intercooling, Jet engine
• Air Standard Refrigeration Cycle
• Otto cycle, gasoline engine
• Diesel Cycle
• Stirling Cycle
• Atkinson and Miller Cycles
• Combined Cycles
– Topping cycle, Bottoming cycle, Binary Cycle, Kalina Cycle

2
 The Brayton Cycle, A Heat Engine, Gas Turbine

Real open cycle Ideal model closed cycle

The Brayton cycle is the ideal model of
a gas-turbine with the same 4 processes
as in the Rankine cycle taking place in
the ideal gas region.
This is internal (in working substance)
combustion vs. Rankine external.
Many new power plants using natural
gas runs in this (open) cycle.
Power density, as net work per size of
the plant Wnet/m or Wnet/V, is high.

3
 The Brayton Cycle, A Heat Engine, Gas Turbine

Ideal model closed cycle

The 4 processes are:
1 – 2 reversible adiabatic compression, compressor
2 – 3 isobaric heat addition (combustion)
3 – 4 reversible adiabatic expansion, turbine
4 – 1 isobaric heat rejection, assumed heat exchanger

4 parameters determine this cycle typically:

P1, T1, rp = (P2/P1), T3
Everything is steady state with a single flow through 4
different components. The individual process analysis is:

Component Energy Eq.: Entropy Eq.: Process:

Compressor 0 = h 1 + w C – h2 0 = s1 – s2 + (0/T) + 0 q = 0, s1= s2
Combustion 0 = h2 – h3 + qH 0 = s2 – s3 +  dq/T + 0 P3 = P2 = C
Turbine 0 = h3 – h4 – wT 0 = s3 – s4 + (0/T) + 0 q = 0, s3 = s4
Heat exchanger 0 = h4 – h1 – qL 0 = s4 – s1 –  dq/T + 0 P4 = P1 = C

4
 The Brayton Cycle

From the process analysis

qH = h3 – h2; qL = h4 – h1; wnet = wT – wC = qH – qL
qL h4 - h1 CP(T4 - T1) T1 (T4/T1 – 1)
th = 1 – q = 1 – h - h  1 – C (T - T ) = 1 – T (T /T – 1)
H 3 2 P 3 2 2 3 2

The two isentropic processes give

P3 P2  T3 k/(k-1)  T2 k/(k-1) T3 T2 T 3 T4
P4 = P1 =  T4  =T 
 1
 T =T
4 1
 T =T
2 1

qL T1 –(k–1)/k
Thermal efficiency: th = 1 –  1 – = 1 – rP
qH T2
Compression ratio: rP = P2 / P1

The compression ratio can be 14-18

with latest compressor technology.
Total net power can be 5-375 MW.

5
 The Brayton Cycle
Example 10.1
A gasturbine has air enter the compressor at 100 kPa, 15oC. After the compressor the air is at
1000 kPa and the maximum cycle temperature is 1100oC. Find (P, T) for each state, the specific
work and heat transfer terms and the cycle efficiency using cold air properties.
Analysis_________________________________________
The cycle is determined by 4 parameters: P1, T1, P2 and T3.
Solve in order the P-v or T-s diagrams can be constructed
4 known parameters + 4 process equations.

State 1: P1, T1  State 2: P2, s2 = s1

State 3: P3 = P2, T3  State 4: P4 = P1, s4 = s3

rP = P2 / P1 = 1000/100 = 10

th = wnet / qH = (wT – wC ) / qH

–(k–1)/k
= 1 – rP (only if cold air properties)

6
 The Brayton Cycle
Example 10.1 continued
Solution_________________________________________
Compressor:
(k-1)/k
T2 = T1 rP = 288.15 K × 100.2857 = 556.3 K
wC = h2 – h1 = CP (h2 – h1) = 1.004 kJ/kg-K (556.3 – 288.15) K
= 269.2 kJ/kg
Combustion chamber:
qH = h3 – h2 = CP (h3 – h2) = 1.004 kJ/kg-K (1373.15 – 556.3) K
= 820.1 kJ/kg
Turbine:
(k-1)/k
T4 = T3 / rP = 1373.15 K / 100.2857 = 711.2 K
wT = h3 – h4 = CP (T3 – T4) = 1.004 kJ/kg-K (1373.15 – 711.2) K
= 664.6 kJ/kg
Heat Exchanger:
qL = h4 – h1 = CP (T4 – T1) = 1.004 kJ/kg-K (711.2 – 288.15) K = 424.7 kJ/kg

wnet = wT – wC = 664.6 – 269.2 = 395.4 kJ/kg

–(k–1)/k
th = wnet / qH = 395.4 / 820.1 = 0.482 = 1 – rP = 1 – 100.2857
7
 The Brayton Cycle Regenerator

Use exhaust gas in a regenerator:

8
 The Brayton Cycle Regenerator

A regenerator works only when T2 < T4

Higher rP means higher T2 and a limit exists.

The cut off compression ratio can be found for

the condition where the two efficiencies are equal.
T2 T1
th regen = 1 – = th = 1 –
T3 T2

They are equal if T2 = T1 T3 resulting in

k
rP limit = [ T3 / T1 ] 2(k-1)

η
In the example shown the limit becomes rp = 11.3

As modern gas-turbines operates with higher

compression ratio’s the regenerator is not used.

rp

9
 The Brayton Cycle Regenerator
Example 10.3
Determine the cycle efficiency if the Brayton cycle in Example 10.1 uses an ideal regenerator.
Solution_______________________________________________________
Ideal regenerator:
Tx = T4 = 711.2 K, Ty = T2
qH = h3 – hx = CP (T3 – Tx) = wT = 664.6 kJ/kg
wnet = wT – wC = 664.6 – 269.2 = 395.4 kJ/kg
th regen = wnet / qH = 395.4 / 664.6 = 0.595

10
 The Brayton Cycle Regenerator Efficiency

Regenerator efficiency:
hx – h2 Tx – T 2
th = ≈
hx' – h2 Tx' – T2

This expresses energy gain in flow before combustor relative to max. possible gain.

A regenerator works only when T2 < T4 : higher rP means higher T2 a limit exists.

x’, y’ are the limits for x, y 11

 The Brayton Cycle, Intercooling

Intercooling can reduce compressor work Curves to scale for 1: 100 kPa, 290 K and rp = 9
Shaft work out: w = –  v dP + ke + pe – loss
Total work in: wC = wC1 + wC2 = h2 – h1 + h4 – h3 Work saved

Cooling: qout = h2 – h3
For T3 = T1 it can be shown min wC:

P2 = P3 = P1 P4
Notice it is the wC2 part that is reduced, see figure.

12
The Brayton Cycle, Intercooler, Regenerator and Reheat

Reheat

13
 The Brayton Cycle modification: Erickson Cycle
Erickson cycle

Incremental compression/intercooling can approach an isothermal compression.

Incremental expansion/reheat can approach an isothermal expansion.
If that is done the Brayton cycle turns into an Erickson cycle.

Notice there is heat transfer in all 4 processes.

wC in =  v dP = P1v1 ln (P2/P1) = RT1 ln rP = – 1q2

wT = –  v dP = – P3v3 ln (P4/P3) = RT3 ln rP = 3q4

2 q3 = h3 – h2 = – 4q1 = – (h1 – h4)

T P
3 4 3
TH 2
T=C
P T=C
4
P=C
2 1
TL
1 s v
14
Erickson Cycle

P
2 3
T=C
T=C
4
1
v

T
3 4
TH

P
P=C
2
TL
1 s

15
 The Jet Engine
In the jet engine no net shaft work, turbine drives compressor and kinetic energy comes
out. Momentum difference between inlet and exit equals thrust of engine.

Work: wT = wC = h2 – ha = h3 – h4 ; s1 = sa = s2
1 2
Diffuser: ha = h1 + 2V1
1 2
Kinetic Energy: 2V5 = h4 – h5
Entropy: s3 = s4 = s5
.
Thrust: F = m1 (V5 - V1)
.
Propulsive power: WP = F Vair craft

16
 The Jet Engine
Example 10.5
The gas turbine in Example 10.1 is used in a jet engine. The compressor inlet is 100 kPa, 15oC.
The maximum pressure is 1000 kPa and the maximum cycle temperature is 1100oC. Find the
exit velocity of the nozzle using cold air properties.
Analysis_______________________________________________________
Most of the cycle is done in Brayton cycle Example 10.1
4 known parameters + 1 condition (wnet = 0) + 5 process equations.
State 1: (100 kPa, 288.15 K), State 2: (1000 kPa, 556.9 K), wC = 269.2 kJ/kg

State 3: P3 = P2, T3 = 1373.15 K State 4: wT = wC, s4 = s3

State 5: P5 = 100 kPa, s5 = s4 = s3 (same as state 4 in Brayton cycle)
(k-1)/k
 T5 = T3 / rP = 1373.15 K / 100.2857 = 711.2 K

17
 The Jet Engine
Example 10.5 continued
Solution______________________________________________________
Turbine:
wT = wC = CP (T3 – T4) = 269.2 kJ/kg
T4 = T3 – wC / CP = 1373.15 – 269.2/1.004 = 1105 K
k/(k1) 3.5
P4 = P3 (T4 / T3) = 1000 kPa (1105 / 1373.15) = 467.5 kPa
Nozzle:
1 2 1 2
h4 = h5 + 2V5, s5 = s4  2V5 = h4 – h5 = CP (T4 – T5)
1 2
2V5 = 1.004 kJ/kg-K × (1105 - 711.2) K = 395.4 kJ/kg

V5 = 2 × 395.4 kJ/kg × 1000 J/kJ = 889 m/s

18
The Brayton Cycle Concept Questions

19
The Air Standard refrigeration Cycle

20
 The Air Standard refrigeration Cycle
Example 10.6
An air refrigeration cycle has compressor inlet at 100 kPa, –20oC with exit at 500 kPa. It enters
.
the expander at 15oC. Determine the COP and mair to get 1 kW of refrigeration.
Analysis_____________________________________________________
The cycle is determined by 4 parameters: P1, T1, P2 and T3.
4 known parameters + 4 process equations.
State 1: P1, T1  State 2: P2, s2 = s1
State 3: P3 = P2, T3  State 4: P4 = P1, s4 = s3
COP = β = qL / wnet rP = P2 / P1 = 500/100 = 5
Solution____________________________________
Expander:
(k-1)/k
T4 = T3 / rP = 288.15 K / 50.2857 = 181.9 K
Heat Exchanger:
qL = h1 – h4 = CP (T1 – T4)
= 1.004 kJ/kg-K (253.15 – 181.9) K = 71.54 kJ/kg
. .
mair = QL / qL = 1 kW / 71.54 kJ/kg = 0.014 kg/s
21
 The Reciprocating Engines

Reciprocating Engines Typical Characteristics

Stroke: S = 2 Rcrank
Bore: B = Dcyl
Bore/Stroke ratio: B/S (best ̴1)
Displacement: Vdispl = Ncyl (Vmax – Vmin)
Compression ratio: rv = CR = Vmax / Vmin

Cycle net work: wnet = o∫ P dv ≡ Pmeff (vmax – vmin)

W/cyl/cycle: Wnet = mwnet = Pmeff (Vmax – Vmin)
. RPM
Rate of work: W = Ncyl Wnet 60

RPM
= Pmeff Vdispl 60

Type of engine: 4 Stroke ( ×1/2) gasoline, diesel

2 Stroke ( ×1) some diesel, small gas

22
 The Typical Engine Characteristics

Number of cylinders, Ncyl: 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 typically in V or I configuration.

Compression ratio, rv: 8 - 9 - 10 (for gasoline increasing over 20 years)

12 - 15 - 18 (Diesel also increasing over time)
Advances in electronic ignition & controls and fuel technology

Size of engines, Vdispl:
50, 250, 500, 750 cc motorcycles, small cars, utility eng.
1, 1.3, 2, 3, 4, 6 L cars, I4, V6, V8 (V2 motor cycle)
6, 10 L, …, trucks, ships mainly diesels
25 000 L = 25 m3 worlds biggest diesel container ship
This produces 108 000 hp

Power density: 50 hp/L older 200 hp, 4.2L V8, non-stressed engine
80 hp/L, new 280 hp 3.6 L V6, van or V8 SUV medium stressed
150-200 hp/L, highly stressed turbocharged engines, race cars.

23
 The 4 Stroke Gasoline Engine Processes

Process or Crank Volume Piston Process: Valve

State angle θ: change: motion: position:
Intake 0 – 180 Vmin → Vmax 1S P=C Inlet open
Compression 180 – 360 Vmax → Vmin 1S q = 0, s = C closed
Combustion* 360 -- 0S V=C closed
Expansion 360 – 540 Vmin → Vmax 1S q = 0, s = C closed
Exhaust 540 – 720 Vmax → Vmin 1S P=C Exhaust open
* In the engine combustion starts with a spark before piston reaches TDC, spark advance timing.

log-log scales

Linear scales

24
 The Otto Cycle model of a Gasoline Engine
Table 10.2 The Otto cycle processes

Process Energy Eq.: Entropy Eq.: Process Eq.:

Compression u2 – u1 = – 1w2 s2 – s1 = (0/T) + 0 q = 0, s1 = s2
Combustion u3 – u2 = qH s3 – s2 =  dqH/T + 0 v3 = v2 = C
Expansion u4 – u3 = – 3w4 s4 – s3 = (0/T) + 0 q = 0, s3 = s4
Heat rejection u1 – u4 = – qL s1 – s4 = –  dqL/T + 0 v4 = v1 = C

The closed cycle model has 2

strokes neglecting the intake
exhaust strokes, substituted
with a heat rejection (4-1).
Combustion is instantaneous.
4 parameters determines cycle
physically you determine:
P1, T1 (inlet), rv geometry
qH implicitly by fuel flow

25
 The Otto Cycle model of a Gasoline Engine
From the process analysis
qH = u3 – u2; qL = u4 – u1; wnet = 1w2 + 3w4 = qH – qL
qL u4 - u1 Cv (T4 - T1) T1 (T4/T1 – 1)
th = 1 – q = 1 – u - u  1 – C (T - T ) = 1 – T (T /T – 1)
H 3 2 v 3 2 2 3 2

The two isentropic processes give

T2  v1  k-1  v4  k-1 T3 T3 T4
T1 =  v2  =v 
 3
=T
4
=> T2 = T1
T1 1–k
Thermal efficiency: th  1 – T = 1 – rv
2

Compression ratio: rv = CR = v1/v2

Current engines

26
 An Otto Cycle Example
Example 10.7
An Otto cycle has compression ratio of 10 and the heat added is 1800 kJ/kg. The gas before
compression is at 100 kPa, 15oC. Determine: All (P, T), thermal efficiency and Pmeff.
Analysis_________________________________________
The cycle is determined by 4 parameters: P1, T1, rv and qH.
Solve in order the P-v or T-s diagrams can be constructed
4 known parameters + 4 process equations.
State 1: P1, T1  State 2: v2 = v1/ rv, s2 = s1
State 3: v3 = v2, u3 = u2 + qH  State 4: v4 = v1, s4 = s3
1–k
th  1 – rv wnet = th qH = Pmeff (v1 – v2)
Solution_________________________________________
v1 = RT1/P1 = 0.287 kJ/kg-K ×288.15 K /100 kPa = 0.827 m3/kg;
v2 = v1/rv = 0.827/10 = 0.0827 m3/kg
k
P2 = P1 r v = 100 × 101.4 = 2512 kPa;
k–1
T2 = T1 r v = 288.15 × 100.4 = 723.8 K
27
 An Otto Cycle Example

Example 10.7 continued

T3 = T2 + qH/Cv = 723.8 K + 1800 kJ/kg / 0.717 kJ/kg-K = 3234.3 K,

P3 = P2 × T3 / T2 = 2512 kPa × 3234.3 K / 723.8 K = 11 225 kPa
k–1
T4 = T3 / r v = 3234.3 K / 100.4 = 1287.6 K;
P4 = P1 × T4/T1 = 100 kPa × 1287.6 K / 288.15 K = 446.8 kPa
k
also (P4 = P3 / r v )
1–k
th  1 – rv = 1 – 10-0.4 = 0.602;
wnet = th qH = 0.602 × 1800 kJ/kg = 1083.6 kJ/kg
wnet 1083.6 kJ/kg
Pmeff = v - v = 0.827 - 0.0827 3 = 1456 kPa
1 2 m /kg

28
 The Processes in a Diesel Engine

Process or Crank Volume Piston Process: Valve

State angle θ: change: motion: position:
Intake 0 – 180 Vmin → Vmax 1S P=C Inlet open
Compression 180 – 360 Vmax → Vmin 1S q = 0, s = C closed
Combustion* 360 – ? Vmin → Vcut xS P=C closed
Expansion ? – 540 Vcut → Vmax (1-x) S q = 0, s = C closed
Exhaust 540 – 720 Vmax → Vmin 1S P=C Exhaust open
* The diesel engine has fuel injection before piston reaches TDC, inj. advance timing.

log-log scales

Linear scales

29
 The Diesel Cycle model of a Diesel Engine
Table 10.3 The Diesel cycle processes

Process Energy Eq.: Entropy Eq.: Process Eq.:

Compression u2 – u1 = – 1w2 s2 – s1 = (0/T) + 0 q = 0, s1 = s2
Combustion* u3 – u2 = qH – 2w3 s3 – s2 =  dqH/T + 0 P3 = P2 = C
Expansion u4 – u3 = – 3w4 s4 – s3 = (0/T) + 0 q = 0, s3 = s4
Heat rejection u1 – u4 = – qL s1 – s4 = –  dqL/T + 0 v4 = v1 = C
* Combustion starts with fuel injection before piston reaches TDC, inj. advance timing.
Expansion during combustion, Cut-off ratio = v3/v2 = T3/T2

The closed cycle model has 2

strokes neglecting the intake
exhaust strokes, substituted
with a heat rejection (4-1).
Combustion takes time (2-3).
4 parameters determines cycle
physically you determine:
P1, T1 (inlet), rv geometry
qH implicitly by fuel flow
30
 The Diesel Cycle model of a Diesel Engine

From the process analysis

qL = u4 – u1; wnet = 1w2 + 2w3 + 3w4 = qH – qL
qH = u3 – u2 + 2w3 = u3 – u2 + P2(v3 – v2) = h3 – h2
Thermal efficiency
qL u4 - u1 Cv (T4 - T1) 1 T4 - T1
th = 1 – q = 1 – h - h  1 – C (T - T ) = 1 – k T - T
H 3 2 P 3 2 3 2

The efficiency formula does

not simplify as much as for
the Otto cycle.

31
 A Diesel Cycle Example
Example 10.8
A Diesel cycle has compression ratio of 20 and the heat added is 1800 kJ/kg. The gas before
compression is at 100 kPa, 15oC. Determine: All (P, T), thermal efficiency and Pmeff.
Analysis_________________________________________
The cycle is determined by 4 parameters: P1, T1, rv and qH.
Solve in order the P-v or T-s diagrams can be constructed
4 known parameters + 4 process equations.
State 1: P1, T1  State 2: v2 = v1/ rv, s2 = s1
State 3: P3 = P2, h3 = h2 + qH  State 4: v4 = v1, s4 = s3
th = wnet / qH Pmeff = wnet / (v1 – v2)
Solution_________________________________________
v1 = RT1/P1 = 0.287 kJ/kg-K ×288.15 K /100 kPa = 0.827 m3/kg;
v2 = v1/rv = 0.827/20 = 0.04135 m3/kg
k
P2 = P1 r v = 100 × 201.4 = 6629 kPa;
k–1
T2 = T1 r v = 288.15 × 200.4 = 955.2 K

32
 A Diesel Cycle Example
Example 10.8 continued

T3 = T2 + qH/CP = 955.2 K + 1800 kJ/kg / 1.004 kJ/kg-K = 2748 K

Cut-off ratio
v3 / v2 = T3 / T2 = 2748 K / 955.2 K = 2.877
v3 = v2 × T3 / T2 = 0.04135 m3/kg × 2.877 = 0.11896 m3/kg
T4 = T3 (v3/v4) k–1 = 2748 K (0.11896 / 0.827)0.4 = 1265 K
P4 = P1 × T4/T1 = 100 kPa × 1265 K / 288.15 K = 439 kPa
alternatively [ P4 = P3 (v3/v4) k ]
qL = u4 – u1 = Cv(u4 – u1) = 0.717 (1265 – 288.15) = 700.4 kJ/kg
wnet = qH – qL = 1800 – 700.4 = 1099.6 kJ/kg
th = wnet / qH = 1099.6 / 1800 = 0.611
wnet 1099.6 kJ/kg
Pmeff = v - v = 0.827 - 0.04135 3 = 1400 kPa
1 2 m /kg

33
The Stirling Cycle

34
The Atkinson and Miller Cycles
Atkinson Cycle

Miller Cycle, turbo-charged

35
The Concept Questions

36
 The Combined, Topping, Bottoming Cycles
Combined Cycle – liq. metal-water binary

Brayton-Rankine Cycle

37
 The Combined, Topping, Bottoming Cycles

Brayton (Top Hi T) -Rankine (Bottom Low T) Combined Cycles

38