LECTURES IN

THERMODYNAMICS
Claus Borgnakke
CHAPTER 9

For the 8th Edition of:

Fundamentals of Thermodynamics
Claus Borgnakke, Richard Sonntag
John Wiley & Sons, 2013
 Chapter 9

• The Rankine Cycle, Steam Power Plant

• Reheat cycle
• Feedwater Heaters
– Open FWH, Closed FWH
• Combined Heat and Power
– Cogeneration, Process Heat
• The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle
• Cycle Configurations
– Dual loop, Cascade System, Regeneration
• Absorption Refrigeration Cycle

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 The Rankine Cycle, A Heat Engine
Rankine Cycle (all processes reversible):

Pump 1-2: Adiabatic Compression, s = C

Boiler 2-3: Isobaric Heat Addition, P = C
Turbine 3-4: Adiabatic Expansion, s = C
Condenser 4-1: Isobaric Heat Rejection, P = C

Standard Assumptions: x1 = 0 and x3 = 1

Common Extension: Superheat to T3' > T3

Steady state: No storage effects

Reversible: sgen = 0
Adiabatic: q = 0 and ∫ dq/T = 0
Isobaric: wshaft = – ∫ v dP = 0

Cycle is two P = C and two s = C processes, resembles

the Carnot cycle (Two T = C instead of P = C).
Parameters to determine cycle:
4*2 - 4 process eqs. - 2 assumptions = 2
parameters, (P3 = P2 and T1).
If superheat then 3 parameters (P3, T3, T1). 3
 The Rankine Cycle, Superheat

In the top of the boiler saturated steam is collected sometimes into a steam
drum and flows out at state 3. If the saturated steam out of the boiler is
being superheated another heat exchanger section is added to the boiler
which heats from 3 – 3’, valve is closed when superheating.

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 The Rankine Cycle, Device Analysis
Process analysis with energy and entropy equations, all w and q are made positive by
knowing the direction of the transfer, no kinetic or potential energy changes.
Device Process Energy Eq. Entropy Eq.
Pump 1-2: 0 = h 1 – h2 + w P 0 = s1 – s2 + 0
Boiler 2-3: 0 = h 2 – h3 + q H 0 = s2 – s3 + ∫ dqH/T
Turbine 3-4: 0 = h3 – h4 – wT 0 = s3 – s4 + 0
Condenser 4-1: 0 = h4 – h1 – qL 0 = s4 – s1 – ∫ dqL/T

Net: 0 = qH – qL + wP – wT 0 = ∫ dqH/T – ∫ dqL/T

wnet = wT – wP = qH – qL; If x4 < 1: ∫ dqL/T = qL/T1
wnet qH – qL qL
Conversion Efficiency ηth = q = q =1–q
H H H

5
 The Rankine Cycle, Practical Comments
Comments to individual processes assuming (P3, T3, T1) determines cycle.
Pump: wP = h2 – h1 ; s2 = s1 => State 2: (P2 = P3, s = s1)
Difficult to interpolate in Table B.1, use incompressibility to find work.
wP = ∫ v dP = v1 (P2 – P1) = vf 1(P2 – Psat) => h2 = hf 1 + wP
Boiler: qH = h3 – h2 ; ∫ dqH/T = s3 – s2 no reason to evaluate integral

Turbine: wT = h3 – h4 ; s3 = s4 => State 4: (P4 = P1, s = s3)

If state 4 is two-phase (s4 < sg) find x4 and then h4
Condenser: qL = h4 – h1 ;

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 The Rankine Cycle, Example
Example 9.1
A basic Rankine cycle, no superheat, has a high pressure of 2 MPa and a condenser
pressure of 10 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency.
Solution__________________________________________________
Pump: Assume incompressible flow, Table B.1.2 for state 1
wP = v1(P2 – P1) = vf (P2 – Psat) = 0.00101 m3/kg (2000 – 10) kPa = 2.0 kJ/kg
h2 = hf 1 + wP = 191.8 + 2.0 = 193.8 kJ/kg
Boiler: Look in Table B.1.2 or B.1.3 for state 3 at 2000 kPa saturated vapor
qH = h3 – h2 = 2799.5 – 193.8 = 2605.7 kJ/kg
Turbine: wT = h3 – h4 ; s3 = s4 = 6.3409 kJ/kg-K < sg = 8.1501 kJ/kg-K
x4 = (s4 – sf)/sfg = (6.3409 – 0.6493)/7.5009 = 0.7588
h4 = hf + x4 hfg = 191.8 + 0.7588 × 2392.8 = 2007.5 kJ/kg
wT = h3 – h4 = 2799.5 – 2007.5 = 792 kJ/kg
Condenser: qL = h4 – h1 = 2007.5 – 191.8 = 1815.7 kJ/kg
wnet qH – qL 792 – 2 2605.7 – 1815.7
Efficiency: ηth = q = q = 2605.7 = 2605.7 = 0.303
H H 7
 The Rankine Cycle, Example
Example 9.2
A Rankine cycle has a boiler exit of 4 MPa, 400oC flowing to the turbine and a condenser
pressure of 10 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency.
Solution__________________________________________________
This is a cycle with superheat.
Pump: Assume incompressible flow, Table B.1.2 for state 1
wP = v1(P2 – P1) = vf (P2 – Psat) = 0.00101 m3/kg (4000 – 10) kPa = 4.0 kJ/kg
h2 = hf 1 + wP = 191.8 + 4.0 = 195.8 kJ/kg

Boiler: Look in Table B.1.3 at 4000 kPa, 400oC

qH = h3 – h2 = 3213.6 – 195.8 = 3017.8 kJ/kg
Turbine: wT = h3 – h4 ; s3 = s4 = 6.7690 kJ/kg-K < sg = 8.1501 kJ/kg-K
x4 = (s4 – sf)/sfg = (6.7690 – 0.6493)/7.5009 = 0.8159
h4 = hf + x4 hfg = 191.8 + 0.8159 × 2392.8 = 2144.1 kJ/kg
wT = h3 – h4 = 3213.6 – 2144.1 = 1069.5 kJ/kg
Condenser: qL = h4 – h1 = 2144.1 – 191.8 = 1952.3 kJ/kg
wnet qH – qL 1069.5 – 4 3017.8 – 1952.3
Efficiency: ηth = q = q = 3017.8 = 3017.8 = 0.353 8
H H
 The Rankine Cycle, Example
Example 9.2E
A Rankine cycle has a boiler exit of 600 lbf/in2, 800 F flowing to the turbine and a
condenser pressure of 0.95 lbf/in2. Determine the thermal efficiency.
Solution__________________________________________________
This is a cycle with superheat.
Pump: Assume incompressible flow, Table F.7.1 for state 1
3 144 (in/ft)2
wP = v1(P2 – P1) = 0.01614 ft /lbm (600 – 0.95) psia = 1.8 Btu/lbm
778 lbf-ft/Btu
h2 = hf 1 + wP = 68.04 + 1.8 = 69.84 Btu/lbm
Boiler: Look in Table F.7.2 at 600 psia, 800 F
qH = h3 – h2 = 1407.55 – 69.84 = 1337.71 Btu/lbm
Turbine: wT = h3 – h4 ; s3 = s4 = 1.6343 Btu/lbm-R < sg = 1.9822 Btu/lbm-R
x4 = (s4 – sf)/sfg = (1.6343 – 0.1296)/1.8526 = 0.8122
h4 = hf + x4 hfg = 68.04 + 0.8122 × 1036.98 = 910.28 Btu/lbm
wT = h3 – h4 = 1407.55 – 910.28 = 497.27 Btu/lbm
Condenser: qL = h4 – h1 = 910.28 – 68.04 = 842.24 Btu/lbm
wnet qH – qL 497.27 – 1.8 1337.71 – 842.24
Efficiency: ηth = q = q = 1337.71 = 1337.71 = 0.37 9
H H
 The Reheat Cycle
Reheat cycle analysis, same flow rate through all components.

HP Turbine: Energy eq.: wT HP = h3 – h4; Entropy eq.: s3 = s4

LP Turbine: Energy eq.: wT LP = h5 – h6; Entropy eq.: s5 = s6
Boiler: Energy eq.: qH = h3 – h2 + h5 – h4
Pump: Energy eq.: wP = h2 – h1 = v1(P2 – P1) Entropy eq.: s2 = s1
Condenser: Energy eq.: qL = h6 – h1
wnet wT HP + wT LP – wP qH – qL
Cycle efficiency: ηth = = =
qH qH qH

The benefit of the cycle is to increase

the quality in the LP section of the
turbine keeping the operational
turbine efficiency high.

This avoids going to high T like 3’.

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 Rankine Cycle Extension: Open Feedwater Heater
CV Open FWH
. . .
Continuity Eq.: m2 + m6 = m3
. . . . .
Extraction: y ≡ m6 / m5 (m3 = m4 = m5)
. . . . . .
Energy Eq.: m2h2 + m6h6 = m3h3  (1 – y) m5h2 + y m5h6 = m5h3
h3 – h2
Extraction fraction: y=h –h
6 2

CV Turbine.
. . .
Cont. Eq.: m5 = m6 + m7
. . . .
Energy Eq.: m5h5 = m6h6 + m7h7 + WT
. .
wT = WT/m5 = h5 – yh6 – (1 – y) h7
= h5 – h6 + (1 – y)(h6 – h7)
Entropy Eq.: s5 = s6 = s7 (all sgen = 0)

To see the last one take CV HP-Turbine (5-6)

and CV LP-Turbine (6-7) use entropy equation. 11
 Rankine Cycle Extension: Open Feedwater Heater
Example 9.4
A Rankine cycle has a boiler exit of 4 MPa, 400oC, an open FWH at 400
kPa has its exit as saturated liquid whereas turbine exhaust is at 10 kPa.
Find the thermal efficiency.
Solution_________________________________________
This is a cycle as in Figure 9.12. Properties given are (P3, T3, P6, x3, P1)
Pump 1: Assume incompressible flow, Table B.1.2 for state 1
wP1 = v1(P2 – P1) = vf (P2 – P1) = 0.00101 m3/kg (400 – 10) kPa
= 0.4 kJ/kg
h2 = hf 1 + wP1 = 191.8 + 0.4 = 192.2 kJ/kg
Turbine: wT = h5 – h6 + (1 – y)(h6 – h7) ;
s5 = s6 = s7 = 6.7690 kJ/kg-K < sg = 6.8959 kJ/kg-K
x6 = (s6 – sf)/sfg = (6.7690 – 1.7766)/5.1193 = 0.9752
h6 = hf + x6 hfg = 604.7 + 0.9752 × 2133.8 = 2685.6 kJ/kg
x7 = (s7 – sf)/sfg = (6.7690 – 0.6493)/7.5009 = 0.8159
h7 = hf + x7 hfg = 191.8 + 0.8159 × 2392.8 = 2144.1 kJ/kg
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 Rankine Cycle Extension: Open Feedwater Heater
Example 9.4 continued

FWH: State 2 known from P1 and state 6 known from turbine.

State 3: 400 kPa, x3 = 0  h3 = 604.7 kJ/kg
h3 – h2 604.7 – 192.2
y= = = 0.1654
h6 – h2 2685.6 - 192.2
Pump 2: Assume incompressible flow, Table B.1.2 for state 3
wP2 = v3 (P4 – P3) = 0.001084 m3/kg (4000 – 400) kPa = 3.9 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 + wP2 = 604.7 + 3.9 = 608.6 kJ/kg

Boiler: Look in Table B.1.3 at 4000 kPa, 400oC

qH = h5 – h4 = 3213.6 – 608.6 = 2605.0 kJ/kg
Turbine combined work and net work are
wT = h5 – h6 + (1 – y)(h6 – h7)
= 3213.6 – 2685.6 + (1 – 0.1654)(2685.6 – 2144.1) = 979.9 kJ/kg
wnet = wT – (1 – y) wP1 – wP2 = 979.9 – 0.8346 ×0.4 – 3.9 = 975.7 kJ/kg
wnet 975.7
Efficiency: ηth = = = 0.375
qH 2605.0 13
 Rankine Cycle Extension: Closed Feedwater Heaters
Closed FWH version 2 with trap flow to condenser. Closed FWH (2 versions)
Assumption: T3 = T4 = T6a
1. Drip pump and junction.
. . . .
Cont. Eq.: m4 = m3 = m2 = m5 ; Extraction flow: 6-6a-6b
. . . . 2. Trap and discard to P-low.
Extr. Flow: m6 = y m5 = m6a = m6c Extraction flow: 6-6a-6c
. . . .
Energy Eq.: m5h2 + y m5h6 = m5h3 + y m5h6a Only one version used in a FWH not both.

solve for y as
h3 – h2
y=h –h
6 6a

Trap and discard version

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 Example of a Real Power Plant Configuration

3 closed and 1 open FWH.

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 Example of a Real Power Plant Configuration
A nuclear power plant
configuration.

As the nuclear reactor does not

run at very high T’s a moisture
separator is removing all the
liquid before expanding in the
low pressure turbine.

FWH FWH
FWH

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 Example of a Real Power Plant Configuration
A nuclear power plant configuration for a submarine.

A transfer fluid is used between the reactor and the

steam generator to minimize water contamination.

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 Process Heat, Combined Heat and Power

Previously the power plant was considered as a heat engine with electrical power as output.
In many industrial applications process heat or steam is needed: heating of a bath for surface
treatment of metal pieces, food processing, drying of lumber for furniture, drying of specimens
after painting, sterilization in a hospital, commercial laundry etc.

When steam is the primary requirement the

power generation is called co-generation or
CHP Combined Heat and Power. Even the
heat from the condenser can be useful.

In some cases the steam is not returned, but

in other cases the energy is extracted and the
water is returned to the cycle as liquid called
condensate.

When all requirements are considered in the

design stage of the facility it is possible to
get a very high efficiency or utilization of
the primary energy source.

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Rankine Cycle, Steam Power Plants

19
 The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle
Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle:

Compressor: 1-2 Adiabatic Compression, s = C

Condenser: 2-3 Isobaric Heat Rejection, P = C
Throttle: 3-4 Isenthalpic expansion, h = C
Evaporator: 4-1 Isobaric Heat Addition, P = C

Standard assumptions: x1 = 1 and x3 = 0

Steady state: No storage effects

Reversible: sgen = 0 (throttle is irreversible)
Adiabatic: q = 0 and ∫ dq/T = 0
Isobaric: wshaft = – ∫ v dP = 0

Parameters to determine cycle:

4*2 - 4 process eqs. - 2 assumptions = 2
Parameters (P3 = P2) determined by the compressor and
T1 implicitly determined by heat transfer.

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 The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle Processes

Compressor: Energy Eq.: 0 = h1 – h2 + wC ; Entropy Eq.: 0 = s1 – s2

Condenser: Energy Eq.: 0 = h2 – h3 – qH Entropy Eq.: 0 = s2 – s3 – ∫dqH/T
Throttle: Energy Eq.: 0 = h3 – h4 ; Entropy Eq.: 0 = s3 – s4 + sgen
Evaporator: Energy Eq.: 0 = h4 – h1 + qL ; Entropy Eq.: 0 = s4 – s1 + ∫dqL/T

qL qL h1 – h3 qH
COP: COPref = βref = = = ; COPHP = = βref + 1
wC qH – qL h2 – h1 wC
We generally have no need to evaluate the integrals as they do equal the change in s.

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 The Vapor Compression Refrigeration Cycle Processes
Example 9.6
A refrigeration cycle uses R-134a with the evaporator at –20oC and the condensation
takes place at 40oC. With a mass flow rate of 0.03 kg/s find the COP and the cooling
capacity of the cycle.
Solution________________________________________________
This cycle is determined as (T1 = –20oC, T3 = 40oC, x3 = 0, x1 = 1).
From Table B.5.1: h1 = 386.1 kJ/kg, s1 = 1.7395 kJ/kg-K,
P3 = Pg 40C = 1017 kPa, h3 = 256.5 kJ/kg
CV Compressor: Energy Eq.: wC = h2 – h1 ; Entropy Eq.: s1 = s2
State 2, B.5.2 (P2 = 1017 kPa, s2 = 1.7395 kJ/kg-K):
T2 = 47.7oC, h2 = 428.4 kJ/kg
wC = h2 – h1 = 428.4 – 386.1 = 42.3 kJ/kg
CV Valve: h4 = h3 = 256.5 kJ/kg
CV Condenser: qL = h1 – h4 = 386.1 – 256.5 = 129.6 kJ/kg
qL 129.6
COP: βref = w = 42.3 = 3.06
C
. .
Cooling capacity: QL = m qL = 0.03 kg/s × 129.6 kJ/kg = 3.89 kW 22
The Linde-Hampson Process – Liquefaction of Gas

23
 The Absorption Refrigeration Cycle
To Heat engine section Std. refrigeration section
ηHE ≤ 1 
Ts
To
. . .
Win = WP + ηHE Q'H

. .
QL = COP Win

. .
COP’ = QL / Q'H
. .
= COP (ηHE + WP / Q'H)

To

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Turbines

25
Steam Power Plant

26