Motivation

Dr. Calvin Burns

 Why do people work?

• A paid job is a form of income but work

also fulfils other needs

• People have a need to fulfil a meaningful

part within a community
Motivation
Components of Motivation
Extrinsic & Intrinsic Motivation
 Discussion Task
Think about your current job or the position you last held.
What tasks were intrinsically motivating? Do you agree or
disagree with the following statement?
 
Finding tasks and experiences that are intrinsically
motivating sounds relatively straightforward but in fact it
requires a heightened awareness of who we are. Without
this emotional self-awareness we have no capacity to
judge whether the tasks available to us could be
intrinsically motivating . . . Finding intrinsically motivating
tasks also requires the companies of which we are
members to communicate the tasks available and to
encourage volunteering.
Gratton, L (2007). Hot Spots. Financial Times Prentice Hall, p. 133.
 An Overview of
Main Theories of Work Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
 Maslow’s Propositions

• A need is not an effective motivator unless those

below it are satisfied
• A satisfied need is not a motivator - Deprived
needs motivate. But…
• Self-actualization stimulates the desire for more
when experienced
• Dissatisfaction of needs affect mental health
• We have an innate desire to move up the
hierarchy
Applying Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
 Problems with Maslow’s Theory

Model is very well known but difficult to test, (there

is little empirical support).

Maslow recognised that the hierarchy is not a fixed

order; may be realistic to say that there is a
decreasing percentage of satisfaction along levels
of hierarchy
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
 Herzberg Two-Factor Theory
Two types of needs identified in interviews with white
collar workers:

1) Hygiene factors bring dissatisfaction if not fulfilled:

policy, supervision, work conditions, salary,
relationships, security

2) Motivators need to be fulfilled for satisfaction:

achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility,
advancement, growth

Theory can not be generalised to all types of workers

and has received mixed empirical support from studies
with white collar workers
 McClelland (1961)
Need for Achievement Theory
Four main arousal-based and socially developed
motives:
Achievement
Power
Affiliation
Avoidance

Relative intensity varies between individuals, and job

types (managers tend to be higher in achievement
than affiliation).
 High Achievement Needs
Common among managers, seen as important for
entrepreneurial activity and economic prosperity, can
be trained

Prefer moderate task difficulty

(best opportunity to do better)

Prefer personal responsibility for performance

(rather than depending on others)

Prefer clear and unambiguous feedback

Tend to be more innovative, restless, taking shortcuts

 Content (Need) Theories vs.
Process Theories

Content Theories are concerned with “what”

motivates behaviour

Process Theories are concerned with “how” the

content of motivation influences behaviour

Both types of theories have something to say

about content and process but do so with varying
emphasis
Basic Model of Expectancy Theory
 Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (1964)

Vroom et al. formulated a process theory that

assumes a mental calculation of expectancy of
rewards and effort
1. Expectancy - If I tried would I be able to perform
the action?
2. Instrumentality - Would performing the action
lead to identifiable outcomes?
3. Valence - How much do I value those
outcomes?
Motivation = V * I * E
 Example of VIE: Writing an Essay

1. Expectancy – How likely is it that I am capable

of writing a good essay?
2. Instrumentality – How likely is it that I will
receive rewards for writing a good essay?
3. Valence - How much do I value those rewards?

This theory has been criticised for over-

intellectualising the motivation process
Managerial Implications of Expectancy
Theory
 Goal-Setting
A goal is a target level of performance.

If a goal is: difficult

specific

And if a person: accepts the goal

feels committed to it
gets feedback on their progress

Then his/her performance improves because:

behaviour is focused
try hard
keep trying
develop strategies
L&C Figure 8.2, Diagram of Goal Theory
 Justice Theories
Key feature: people motivated by fairness.

Distributive Justice: Have I received fair rewards?

Procedural Justice: Are the procedures used to

allocate rewards fair?

McFarlin and Sweeney (1992) – employees perceived

distributive injustice (led to low satisfaction with pay)
but perceived procedural justice (led to commitment to
their employer)
 Justice Theories

Equity Theory
A person is motivated to achieve and maintain a fair
balance between what they put into their work (inputs)
and what they get out of it (outcomes). Fairness is
defined by comparison with relevant others. So:
My inputs = Other’s inputs

My outcomes Other’s outcomes

Adams’s Equity Theory of Motivation
 Organisational Citizenship Behaviour

When people feel they have been treated unjustly at

work, they are less likely to engage in OCBs
(voluntary, discretionary acts) like;

Altruism: helping co-workers with work tasks / problems

Conscientiousness: doing more than the bare minimum
Civic virtue: involved in the life of the organisation
Courtesy: preventing conflict by considerate behaviour
Sportsmanship: not complaining in the short run about less
than ideal circumstances
 Case Study: CNC Operator Sean McIntyre

Sean McIntyre is an operator of a computer-controlled milling

machine. His task consists of preparation and programme loading
(once in 90 hours), initial quality check, and monitoring of the
milling process (there is nothing to do for hours, but he always
has to be in a receptive mode if the machine needs attention).
The job involves very little communication.

Sean is semi-skilled with a lot of experience and usually gets

to train new personnel but he does not have as many formal
qualifications as his co-workers because his training is not
accepted as equivalent in this country. Therefore there is little
opportunity for promotion or rotation to other types of machines.
Sean describes his job as not easy but extremely boring and he
says he doesn’t feel motivated at work.