Chapter Two:- Computer System

 Computer System are collection of hardware and software

that are designed to receive ,process , manages the
instructions given by user and returns output in the form
of human readable.
There are three major components of a computer
system:
 Hardware
 Software
 Humanware
 Hardware
 The hardware of the computer consists of all the
electronic components and electromechanical
devices that comprise the physical entity of the
device.
HW is the physical, touchable, electronic and
mechanical parts of a computer system.
External Components
Mouse

The mouse is a
pointing device that
sends control signals
into the computer.
It is used to move
the cursor (usually
arrow icon) on the
screen and to
perform click
actions.

Back
Monitor

It is used to display
data in visual form
(which can only be
seen). The images
it display are where
the user gets
information.

Back
Keyboard

This contains set of

keys that are used
to input characters
(letters, numbers)
and control signals
into the computer.

Back
Automatic Voltage Regulator

It protects the
computer from
changes in the
electricity that may
damage the
computer
components. It
regulates the
voltage that goes to
the computer.

Back
System Unit

It serves as a
container of the
computer’s
internal parts
(motherboard,
CPU, etc.)

Back
Internal Components
Power Supply Unit

It converts the main

alternating current
into low-voltage
direct current that
is supplied to other
parts.
A power supply unit
has its own fan.
Hard Disk Drive

It is the main
storage device of
the computer. It is
where most of the
files of the
computer are
stored.
Optical Disc Drive

It reads or writes
data into optical
discs (CD, DVD, Blu-
ray Disc).
Random Access Memory Module

It is the temporary
storage device of the
computer. It is used
to hold the data that
the computer is
working on.
The black rectangles
are called RAM
chips.
Central Processing Unit

This is referred to
as the computer’s
brain as it does the
processing job of
the computer. This
means that it is
responsible for
manipulating the
data.
CPU Fan and Heatsink
These two
components work
together in keeping the
CPU from overheating.
The metal is called the
heatsink as it conducts
heat from the CPU
while the CPU fan
blows the air to the
heatsink.
See next slide to know
the airflow
System Fan

This is found at the

left side panel and
the back panel of
the system unit.
It directs the flow
of air in the system
unit.
Motherboard

It is the main
circuit board of the
computer that
connects all other
parts.
 PARTS OF THE MOTHERBOARD

Expansion Slots

These are where

the expansion cards
such as modem
card and graphics
card are installed.
These are different
types of slots.
RAM Slots

These are where

the RAM modules
are installed.
Northbridge

Located between
the CPU socket,
Expansion slots,
and RAM slots.
It coordinates the
flow of data
between the CPU,
graphics card, and
RAM
Southbridge

Located below the

expansion slots,
the Southbridge
handles all of the
computer’s
input/output
functions.
The location of the two Chipsets
BIOS Chip

It stands for Basic

Input/Output
System.
It contains the
program that
checks devices to
know if the
computer is ready
to startup.
CMOS RAM

It is the one that

holds data used by
the BIOS or
Operating System.
These data
includes time,
date, BIOS
password.
CMOS Battery

It provides the
power used by the
CMOS RAM so that
even when the
computer is off, the
CMOS RAM can still
keep data (this
means time and
date will not be
reset).
Back Panel Ports

Located at the back

of the motherboard.
This is where most
of the computer
peripherals are
connected. These
peripherals include
the keyboard,
mouse, and printer.
Front Panel Headers

It is mostly located
at the left and front
side of the
motherboard. Most
computers have
three front panel
headers: system
panel headers,
audio headers, USB
headers.
CPU Socket

It is where the CPU

is installed.
20+4 Pin ATX Main Power Connector

It is where the
20+4 Pin ATX Main
Power Connector
of the PSU is
connected.
 Input Devices
Accepts data and instructions from the user or
from another computer system.
There are two types of Input Devices

1.Keyboard Entry
2.Direct Entry
Keyboard Entry – Data is inputted to the
computer through a keyboard.
• Direct Entry – A form of input that does not require data to
be keyed by someone sitting at a keyboard. Direct-entry
devices create machine-readable data on paper, or magnetic
media, or feed it directly into the computer’s CPU

Three Categories of Direct Entry Devices

1.Pointing Devices - An input device used to

move the pointer (cursor) on screen

Mouse - The most common 'pointing device' used in PCs.

Every mouse has two buttons and most have one or two
scroll wheels.
• Touch screen- A display screen that is sensitive to the
touch of a finger or stylus. Used in myriad applications,
including ATM machines, retail point-of-sale terminals,
car navigation and industrial controls. The touch screen
became wildly popular for smart phones and tablets
• Light Pen - A light sensitive stylus wired to a video
terminal used to draw pictures or select menu options.
The user brings the pen to the desired point on screen
and presses the pen button to make contact.
2. Scanning Devices- A device that can read text or
illustrations printed on paper and translates the
information into a form the computer can use.

3. Voice- Input Devices - Audio input devices also

known as speech or voice recognition systems that
allow a user to send audio signals to a computer for
processing, recording, or carrying out commands.
Audio input devices such as microphones allow users to
speak to the computer in order to record a voice message
or navigate software.
 Output Devices
Output Devices - Any piece of computer hardware
that displays results after the computer has
processed the input data that has been entered.
1. Computer Display Monitor- It displays
information in visual form, using text and graphics.
The portion of the monitor that displays the
information is called the screen or video display
terminal. Types of monitor CRT ,LCD &LED.
Smart Board - A type of display screen that has a touch
sensitive transparent panel covering the screen, which is
similar to a touch screen.
Printer - A device that prints text or illustrations on paper.

Types of printer
Ink-Jet or Bubble-Jet Printer - bprays ink at a sheet of
paper. Inkjet printers produce high-quality text and
graphics.
Laser Printer - Uses the same technology as copy
machines. Laser printers produce very high
quality text and graphics.
• LCD and LED Printer- Similar to a laser
printer, but uses liquid crystals or light emitting diodes
rather than a laser to produce an image on the drum.
Line Printer - Contains a chain of characters
or pins that print an entire line at one time.
Line printers are very fast, but produce lowquality
print.
Thermal Printer- An inexpensive printer that
works by pushing heated pins against heat sensitive
paper. Thermal printers are widely
used in calculators and fax machines.
• Speakers - Used to play sound. They may
be built into the system unit or connected
with cables. Speakers allow you to listen to
music and hear sound effects from your
computer.
 Ports
External connecting sockets on the outside of
the computer. This is a pathway into and out
of the computer. A port lets users plug in
outside peripherals, such as monitors,
scanners and printers.
The Ports and their function
 SOFTWARE
 The software component refers to the instructions,
programs, data, and protocols which run on top of
hardware.
 Computer systems divide software systems into two
major classes:
1. System software
2. Application software.
 System software

System software:-Programs that control the operations

of the computer and its devices.
 The system manages other software and devices inside the
computer.
Example of system software is the operating system
(OS), Device drivers, compilers,
Assemblers.
Operating systems for traditional computers include
Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux.
Popular mobile operating systems include Android OS,
iPhone OS.
 Application software.
Application software is a Programs that perform
specific tasks for users.
An application software is designed for benefit of users
to perform one or more tasks.
Example of application software is Microsoft Word,
Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle, Adobe Photoshop,
AutoCAD, Media player software, Internet
browsers, Image editing, Mathematical software,
Simulation software, Spreadsheets, Video editing
software, Word processing.
 Humanware
The human ware component refers to the
person that uses the computer.

Refers to people involved in the data processing

operations such as the system administrator,
office workers, students and others.
 Memory system
Computer memory is any physical device capable of storing
information temporarily or permanently.
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and
instructions.
The memory is divided into large number of small parts called
cells.
Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from
zero to memory size minus one.
 For example, if the computer has 64k words, then this memory
unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of
these locations varies from 0 to 65535
Memory Access Methods
An important design issue is to provide a
computer system with as large and fast a
memory as possible, within a given cost
target.
Measures for the speed of a memory:
 memory access time.
 memory cycle time.
Several techniques to increase the effective size and
speed of the memory:
 Cache memory (to increase the effective speed).
 Virtual memory (to increase the effective size).
• Each memory cell can hold one bit of information.
• Memory cells are organized in the form of an array.
• One row is one memory word.
• All cells of a row are connected to a common line,
known as the “word line”.
• Word line is connected to the address decoder.
• Sense/write circuits are connected to the data
input/output lines of the memory chip.
 Memory Hierarchy

In the Computer System Design, Memory

Hierarchy is an enhancement to organize the
memory such that it can minimize the access
time. The Memory Hierarchy was developed
based on a program behavior known as locality
of references.
 REGISTER
Registers are a type of computer memory used to quickly
accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are
being used immediately by the CPU.
The registers used by the CPU are often termed as
Processor registers.
The computer needs processor registers for manipulating
data and a register for holding a memory address.
The register holding the memory location is used to
calculate the address of the next instruction after the
execution of the current instruction is completed.
Following is the list of some of the most common registers used in a basic computer
Register Symbol Number of bits Function

Data register DR 16 Holds memory

operand
Address register AR 12 Holds address
for the memory
Accumulator AC 16 Processor
register
Instruction IR 16 Holds
register instruction code
Program PC 12 Holds address
counter of the
instruction
Temporary TR 16 Holds
register temporary data
Input register INPR 8 Carries input
character
Output register OUTR 8 Carries output
character
Internal registers include the instruction
register (IR), memory buffer register (MBR),
memory data register (MDR), and memory
address register (MAR).
The instruction register fetches instructions
from the program counter (PC) and holds each
instruction as it is executed by the processor.
 The memory registers are used to pass data
from memory to the processor.
basically a register will perform the following operations.
 Fetch: To fetch the instructions of the user also the
instructions that are present in the main memory in a
sorted way
 Decode: The second operation is to decode the
instructions that need to perform. Thus CPU will be
knowing what are the instructions
 Execute: Once the instructions are decoded then
execute operation is performed by the CPU. Once done
the result is presented on the user screen
 Cache Memory
 Cache Memory is a special very high-speed memory. It is
used to speed up and synchronizing with high-speed CPU
 Cache memory is an extremely fast memory type that acts
as a buffer between RAM and the CPU.
 Data is transferred in the form of words between the cache
memory and the CPU.
 Data is transferred in the form of blocks or pages between
the cache memory and the main memory.
 Whenever the CPU needs to access memory, it first checks
the cache memory. If the data is not found in cache
memory, then the CPU moves into the main memory.
Levels of Cache Memory
Levels of Cache: Cache memory is categorized in levels
based on it’s closeness and accessibility to the
microprocessor. There are three levels of a cache.
Level 1(L1) Cache: This cache is inbuilt in the processor and
is made of SRAM(Static RAM) Each time the processor
requests information from memory, the cache controller on
the chip uses special circuitry to first check if the memory
data is already in the cache. If it is present, then the system
is spared from time consuming access to the main memory.
In a typical CPU, primary cache ranges in size from 8 to 64
KB, with larger amounts on the newer processors. This type
of Cache Memory is very fast because it runs at the speed
of the processor since it is integrated into it.
Level 2(L2) Cache: The L2 cache is larger but
slower in speed than L1 cache. It is used to see
recent accesses that is not picked by L1 cache
and is usually 64 to 2 MB in size. A L2 cache is
also found on the CPU. If L1 and L2 cache are
used together, then the missing information that
is not present in L1 cache can be retrieved
quickly from the L2 cache. Like L1 caches, L2
caches are composed of SRAM but they are much
larger. L2 is usually a separate static RAM (SRAM)
chip and it is placed between the CPU &
DRAM(Main Memory)
Level 3(L3) Cache: L3 Cache memory is an
enhanced form of memory present on the
motherboard of the computer. It is an extra
cache built into the motherboard between the
processor and main memory to speed up the
processing operations. It reduces the time gap
between request and retrieving of the data and
instructions much more quickly than a main
memory. L3 cache are being used with
processors nowadays, having more than 3 MB of
storage in it.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)
Primary memory holds only those data and
instructions on which the computer is currently
working.
It has a limited capacity and data is lost when
power is switched off.
It is generally made up of semiconductor device.
 It is the working memory of the computer. Faster
than secondary memories.
It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
 Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM is a part of computer’s Main Memory which is
directly accessible by CPU.
It temporarily stores copy of information and files
loaded from a computer hard drive that are required
by a processor.
It is volatile in nature, which means that data will be
erased once supply to the storage device is turned off.
RAM stores data randomly and the processor
accesses these data randomly from the RAM storage.
 Types of Random Access Memory (RAM)
The RAM chips are of two types.
Dynamic RAM(DRAM) A type of RAM that stores
each bit of data in a separate capacitor within an
integrated circuit.
DRAM has to be refreshed (given a new
electronic charge) every few milliseconds to
retain data.
Static RAM (SRAM) It is a type of memory in
which, memory refreshing is not required.
 Static RAM (SRAM)
Static random-access memory (static
RAM or SRAM) is a type of 
random-access memory (RAM) that uses 
latching circuitry (flip-flop) to store each bit.
SRAM is volatile memory; data is lost when
power is removed.
data is stored using the state of a six transistor
memory cell. Static RAM is mostly used as a
cache memory for the processor (CPU).
 Dynamic RAM(DRAM)
Do not retain their state indefinitely.
Contents must be periodically refreshed.
Contents may be refreshed while accessing
them for reading.
 SDRAM vs DRAM
• Dynamic RAM
• Static RAM
• Less expensive
• More expensive.
• It has slow speed to SRAM
• It has excellent speed to DRAM.
• It is used in Main Memory.
• Use in L1 and L2 Caches Memory.
• It uses low density per cell; it means one
• High density, it means six transistors per transistor per chip.
chip.
• Volatile Memory – need regular power
• Volatile Memory – Do not need extra supply to store data.
charges for storing data.
• It is embedded on the motherboard of PC.
• It is placed between main memory and
• It is attached directly with CPU bus.
processor.
• • Large size
Linked directly to Cache Memory.
• • Use capacitors.
Small size
• • It uses one transistor in one block
Use transistors and latches.
memory.
• It uses six transistors in one block memory.
• Need power refreshing circuit
• Do not need refreshing circuit.
• Consume high power.
• Consume less power to DRAM.
• DRAM is off chip memory that means, it
• SRAM is on chip memory, it needs small
needs large access time.
access time.
 ROM
 ROM holds programs and data permanently even
when computer is switched off
 Data can be read by the CPU in any order so ROM
is also direct access
 The contents of ROM are fixed at the time of
manufacture
 Stores a program called the bootstrap loader that
helps start up the computer
 Access time of between 10 and 50 nanoseconds
 Types of ROM
1.Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM)
 • Empty of data when manufactured
 • May be permanently programmed by the user
2. Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM)
 Can be programmed, erased and reprogrammed
 The EPROM chip has a small window on top allowing it to
be erased by shining ultra-violet light on it
 After reprogramming the window is covered to prevent
new contents being erased
 Access time is around 45 – 90 nanoseconds
3.Electrically Erasable Programmable Read
Only Memory (EEPROM)
 Reprogrammed electrically without using
ultraviolet light
 Access times between 45 and 200
nanoseconds
RAM vs ROM
 SECONDARY MEMORY
This type of memory is also known as external
memory or non-volatile.
 It is slower than the main memory.
These are used for storing data/information
permanently.
CPU directly does not access these memories, instead
they are accessed via input-output routines.
The contents of secondary memories are first
transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU
can access it.
These are some characteristics of secondary
memory, which distinguish it from primary memory
• It is non-volatile, i.e. it retains data when power is
switched off
• It is large capacities to the tune of terabytes
• It is cheaper as compared to primary memory
• Depending on whether secondary memory device is part of
CPU or not, there are two types of secondary memory –
fixed and removable.
Hard Disk Drive
• Hard disk drive is made up of a series of circular disks
called platters arranged one over the other almost ½
inches apart around a spindle. Disks are made of non-
magnetic material like aluminum alloy and coated with
10-20 nm of magnetic material.
• Standard diameter of these disks is 14 inches and they
rotate with speeds varying from 4200 rpm (rotations per
minute) for personal computers to 15000 rpm for
servers. Data is stored by magnetizing or demagnetizing
the magnetic coating. A magnetic reader arm is used to
read data from and write data to the disks. A typical
modern HDD has capacity in terabytes (TB).
CD Drive
CD stands for Compact Disk. CDs are circular disks that use optical rays, usually lasers, to read and write
data. They are very cheap as you can get 700 MB of storage space for less than a dollar. CDs are inserted
in CD drives built into CPU cabinet. They are portable as you can eject the drive, remove the CD and carry
it with you. There are three types of CDs −
CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) − The data on these CDs are recorded by the
manufacturer. Proprietary Software, audio or video are released on CD-ROMs.
CD-R (Compact Disk – Recordable) − Data can be written by the user once on the CD-R. It cannot be
deleted or modified later.
CD-RW (Compact Disk – Rewritable) − Data can be written and deleted on these optical disks again and
again.
DVD Drive
DVD stands for Digital Video Display. DVD are optical devices that can store 15 times the data held by
CDs. They are usually used to store rich multimedia files that need high storage capacity. DVDs also come
in three varieties – read only, recordable and rewritable.
Pen Drive
Pen drive is a portable memory device that uses solid state memory rather than magnetic fields or lasers
to record data. It uses a technology similar to RAM, except that it is nonvolatile. It is also called USB drive,
key drive or flash memory.
Blue Ray Disk
Blue Ray Disk (BD) is an optical storage media used to store high definition (HD) video and other
multimedia filed. BD uses shorter wavelength laser as compared to CD/DVD. This enables writing arm to
focus more tightly on the disk and hence pack in more data. BDs can store up to 128 GB data.
 Memory management
Memory management is the process of
controlling and coordinating computer memory,
assigning portions called blocks to various
running programs to optimize overall system
performance.
 It is the most important function of an operating
system that manages primary memory.
 It helps processes to move back and forward
between the main memory and execution disk.
 Why Use Memory Management?
It allows you to check how much memory needs to be
allocated to processes that decide which processor
should get memory at what time.
Tracks whenever inventory gets freed or unallocated.
According to it will update the status.
It allocates the space to application routines.
It also make sure that these applications do not
interfere with each other.
Helps protect different processes from each other
It places the programs in memory so that memory is
utilized to its full extent.
• Uni-program
– Memory split into two
– One for Operating System (monitor)
– One for currently executing program
• Multi-program
– “User” part is sub-divided and shared among
active processes
 Effective memory management is vital in a
multiprogramming system.
 If only a few processes are in memory, then for
much of the time all of the processes will be waiting
for I/O and the processor will be idle.
 Thus, memory needs to be allocated efficiently to
pack as many processes into memory as possible.
 Partitioning
• Splitting memory into sections to allocate to
processes (including Operating System)
• Two types
– Fixed-sized partitions
– Variable-sized partitions
 Fixed-sized partitions
• Equal size or Unequal size partitions
• Process is fitted into smallest hole that will
take it (best fit)
• Some wasted memory due to each block
having a hole of unused memory at the end of
its partition
• Leads to variable sized partitions
For example, a process that requires 3M bytes
of memory would be placed in the 4M
partition of Figure, wasting 1M that could be
used by another process.
 Variable-Sized Partitions
• Allocate exactly the required memory to a process
• This leads to a hole at the end of memory, too small to
use – Only one small hole - less waste
• When all processes are blocked, swap out a process and
bring in another
• New process may be smaller than swapped out process
• Reloaded process not likely to return to same place in
memory it started in
• Another hole
• Eventually have lots of holes (fragmentation)
• An example, using 64 MB of main memory, is shown in Figure Initially,
main memory is empty, except for the OS (a). The first three processes are
loaded in, starting where the OS ends and occupying just enough space
for each process (b, c, d). This leaves a “hole” at the end of memory that
is too small for a fourth process. At some point, none of the processes in
memory is ready. The OS swaps out process 2 (e), which leaves sufficient
room to load a new process, process 4 (f). Because process 4 is smaller
than process 2, another small hole is created. Later, a point is reached at
which none of the processes in main memory is ready, but process 2, in
the Ready-Suspend state, is available. Because there is insufficient room
in memory for process 2, the OS swaps process 1
out (g) and swaps process 2 back in (h).
Solutions to Holes in Variable-Sized Partitions

Coalesce - Join adjacent holes into a single

large hole
Compaction - From time to time go through
memory and move all holes into one free
block (c.f. disk de-fragmentation
 Input Output systems

The I/O subsystem of a computer provides an efficient
mode of communication between the central system and
the outside environment.

It handles all the input-output operations of the computer
system.

Peripheral Devices Input or output devices that are
connected to computer

These devices are designed to read information into or out
of the memory unit upon command from the CPU and are
considered to be the part of computer system. These
devices are also called peripherals. For example:
Keyboards, display units and printers are common
peripheral devices.
There are three types of peripherals:
 Input peripherals : Allows user input, from the
outside world to the computer. Example:
Keyboard, Mouse etc.
 Output peripherals: Allows information
output, from the computer to the outside
world. Example: Printer, Monitor etc.
 Input-Output peripherals: Allows both
input(from outside world to computer) as well
as, output(from computer to the outside
world). Example: Touch screen etc.
 External Devices
 External devices are needed as a means of
communication to the outside world (both input and
output – I/O)
 Types of External Devices are
Human readable – communication with user
(monitor, printer, keyboard, mouse)
Machine readable – communication with equipment
(hard drive, CDROM, sensors, and actuators)
Communication – communication with remote
computers/devices (Can be any of the first two or a
network interface card or modem)
 Interfaces
 Interface is a shared boundary between two separate
components of the computer system which can be
used to attach two or more components to the system
for communication purposes.
There are two types of interface:
CPU Interface
I/O Interface
 Input-Output Interface
Input Output Interface provides a method for transferring information
between internal storage (such as memory and CPU registers) and
external I/O devices. Peripherals connected to a computer need
special communication links for interfacing them with the central
processing unit.
In computer system, there are special hardware components between
the CPU and peripherals to control or manage the input-output
transfers. These components are called input-output interface units
because they provide communication links between processor bus and
peripherals. They provide a method for transferring information
between internal system and input-output devices.
 The Major Differences of CPU and I/O
Interface
 Peripherals are electromechanically and electromagnetic devices and
their manner of operation of the CPU and memory, which are electronic
devices. Therefore, a conversion of signal values may be needed.
 The data transfer rate of peripherals is usually slower than the transfer
rate of CPU and consequently, a synchronization mechanism may be
needed.
 Data codes and formats in the peripherals differ from the word format in
the CPU and memory. Peripherals- Byte, Block, …
CPU or memory- word.
 To Resolve these differences, computer systems include special
hardware components between the CPU and Peripherals to supervises
and synchronizes all input and out transfers. These components are
called Interface Units because they interface between the processor bus
and the peripheral devices.
 I/O module function
Control and timing: coordinates the flow of traffic
between internal resources and external devices.
 Processor communication: involves command decoding
data status reporting address recognition.
 Error detection: detect and reports transmission errors.
Data buffering: perform the needed buffering operation
to balance device and memory speeds.
Device communication: involves commands, status
information and data.
 I/O Module: Control and Timing
Required because of multiple devices all
communicating on the same channel
Example
CPU checks I/O module device status
I/O module returns status
If ready, CPU requests data transfer
I/O module gets data from device
I/O module transfers data to CPU
I/O Module: Processor Communication
Commands from processor – Examples: READ
SECTOR, WRITE SECTOR, SEEK track number, and
SCAN record ID.
Data – passed back and forth over the data bus
Status reporting – Request from the processor for
the I/O Module's status. May be as simple as
BUSY and READY
Address recognition – I/O device is setup as a
block of one or more addresses unique to itself
I/O Module Structure
 I/O BUS and Interface Module

I/O BUS and Interface Module It defines the

typical link between the processor and several
peripherals. The I/O Bus consists of data
lines, address lines and control lines
 I/O Commands
 There are four types of I/O commands that an I/O module may
receive when it is addressed by a processor:
Control
- used to activate a peripheral and tell it what to do.
Test
- used to test various status conditions associated with
an I/O module and its peripherals.
Read
- causes the I/O module to obtain an item of data from
the peripheral and place it in an internal buffer.
Write
- causes the I/O module to take an item of data from the
data bus and subsequently transmit that data item to the
peripheral.
There are two methods in which the Processor can
address the input/output devices:
In the First arrangement, I/O devices are assigned
particular addresses, isolated from the address space
assigned to the memory .
The execution of an input instruction at an input device
address will cause the character stored in the input
register of that device to be transferred to a specific
register in the CPU. Similarly, the execution of an output
instruction . This arrangement, called ”Shared I/O’’, in the
case, the address and data lines from the CPU can be
shared between the memory and I/O devices. A separate
control line will have to be used. This is because of the
need for executing input and output instruction.
The main Advantage of the Shared I/O
arrangement is the Separation between the
memory address space and that of the I/O
devices.
Its main Disadvantage is the need to have
special input and output instruction in the
processor instruction set.
The Second, possible I/O arrangement is deal with input and output
registers as if they are regular memory locations. For example, Read
Device 6 is equivalent to performing an input operation from the input
register in Device #6. Similarly, a write operation. This
arrangement is called Memory – Mapped I/O.
The main advantage of the memory-mapped I/O is the use of the read
and write instructions of the processor to perform the input and output
operations, respectively. It eliminates the need for introducing special
I/O instructions.
The main Disadvantage of the memory-mapped I/O is the need to
reserve a certain part of the memory address space for addressing I/O
devices, that is, a reduction in the available memory address space.
 I/O Mapping Summary
Memory mapped I/O
 Devices and memory share an address space.
 I/O looks just like memory read/write
 No special commands for I/O
 Large selection of memory access commands
available
Isolated I/O
 Separate address spaces
 Need I/O or memory select lines
 Special commands for I/O Limited set
 Modes/Techniques of I/O Data Transfer

Data transfer between the central unit and I/O

devices can be handled in generally three
types of modes which are given below:
 Programmed I/O
 Interrupt Initiated I/O
 Direct Memory Access
 Programmed I/O
 Data are exchanged between the processor and the I/O module.
 The processor executes a program that gives it direct control of the I/O
operation, including sensing device status, sending a read or write
command, and transferring the data.
 When the processor issues a command to the I/O module, it must wait
until the I/O operation is complete. If the processor is faster than the I/O
module, this is wasteful of processor time.
 Programmed I/O instructions are the result of I/O instructions written in
computer program.
 Each data item transfer is initiated by the instruction in the program.
Usually the program controls data transfer to and from CPU and
peripheral.
 Transferring data under programmed I/O requires constant monitoring
of the peripherals by the CPU.
I/O module does not inform CPU directly
CPU may wait or do something and come back
later
Wastes CPU time because typically processor
is much faster than I/O
CPU acts as a bridge for moving data between I/O
module and main memory, i.e., every piece of
data goes through CPU
CPU waits for I/O module to complete operation
In the programmed I/O
method the CPU stays in
the program loop until
the I/O unit indicates
that it is ready for data
transfer.
 Interrupt Driven I/O
The CPU issues commands to the i/o module then proceeds
with its normal work until interrupted by i/o device on
completion of its work.
For input, the device interrupts the CPU when new data has
arrived and is ready to be arrived by the system processor .
The actual actions to perform depend on whether the
device uses i/o ports, memory mapping.
For output, the deice delivers an interrupt either when it is
ready to accept new data or to acknowledge a successful
data transfer.
Overcomes CPU waiting
Requires setup code and interrupt service
routine
No repeated CPU checking of device
I/O module interrupts when ready
Still requires CPU to be go between for
moving data between I/O module and main
memory
Interrupt Driven I/O Basic Operation
CPU issues read command.
•I/O module gets data from peripheral whilst
CPU does other work.
•I/O module interrupts CPU.
•CPU requests data.
•I/O module transfers data.
 Types of Interrupts
Hardware Interrupts: If the signal for the processor is from
external device or hardware is called hardware interrupts.
Example: from keyboard we will press the key to do some
action this pressing of key in keyboard will generate a signal
which is given to the processor to do action, such interrupts
are called hardware interrupts. Hardware interrupts can be
classified into two types they are:
•Maskable Interrupt: The hardware interrupts which can be
delayed when a much highest priority interrupt has occurred
to the processor.
•Non Maskable Interrupt: The hardware which cannot be
delayed and should process by the processor immediately
Software Interrupts: Software interrupt can also
divided in to two types. They are:
•Normal Interrupts: the interrupts which are
caused by the software instructions are called
software instructions.
•Exception: unplanned interrupts while executing a
program is called Exception. For example: while
executing a program if we got a value which should
be divided by zero is called a exception.
 Direct Memory Access (DMA)
 Direct Memory Access (DMA) means CPU grants I/O module
authority to read from or write to memory without involvement
DMA module controls exchange of data between main memory
and the I/O device.
 DMA device can transfer data directly to and from memory, rather
than using the CPU as an intermediary, and can thus relieve
congestion on the bus.
 CPU is only involved at the beginning and end of the transfer and
interrupted only after entire block has been transferred . Direct
Memory Access needs a special hardware called DMA controller
(DMAC) that manages the data transfers and arbitrates access to
the system bus.
 Hardware design is complicated because the DMA controller must
be integrated into the system, and the system must allow the DMA
controller to be a bus master.
 DMA controller
DMA controller has an address register, data count
register, control logic.
 Address register :contains an address that specifies the
memory location of the data to be transferred. The DMA
controller automatically increment the address register after
each word transfer, so the transfer will be from the next
memory location.
 Data count register: holds the number of words to be
transfer ,the word count is decremented by one after each
word transfer.
 Control logic: specifies the transfer mode ( number of DMA
operation they support)
DMA transfer types:
-Burst mode
the DMA controller keeps control of the bus until all the data has
been transferred to (from ) memory from (to) the peripheral
device. This mode of transfer is needed for fast devices where data
transfer cannot be stopped until the entire transfer is done .
• Single – cycle mode
the DMA controller releasing the bus after each
transfer of one data word . This minimizes the
amount of time that the DMA controller keeps the
CPU from controlling the bus , but it requires that
the bus request / acknowledge sequence be
performed for every single transfer.
 DMA Configurations
Single Bus, Detached DMA controller
– Each transfer uses bus twice – I/O to DMA then
DMA to memory
– CPU is suspended twice
Single Bus, DMA controller integrated into I/O module
– Controller may support one or more devices
– Each transfer uses bus once – DMA to memory
– CPU is suspended once
Separate I/O Bus
– Bus supports all DMA enabled devices with single
DMA controller
– Each transfer uses bus once – DMA to memory
– CPU is suspended once
 Computer buses
 A bus is a communication system in computer architecture that
transfers data between components inside a computer, or between
computers.
 The following are a few points to describe a computer bus:-
 A bus is a group of lines/wires which carry computer signals.
 A bus is the means of shared transmission.
 Lines are assigned for providing descriptive names. — carries a
single electrical signal, e.g. 1- bit memory address, data bits
series, or timing control that turns the device on or off.
 Data can be transferred from one computer system location to
another (between different I / O modules, memory, and CPU).
 The bus is not only cable but also hardware (bus architecture),
protocol, program, and bus controller.
• Following are the three components of a bus: –
The address bus, a one-way pathway that allows
information to pass in one direction only,
carries information about where data is stored in
memory.
The data bus is a two-way pathway carrying the
actual data (information) to and from the
main memory.
The control bus holds the control and timing
signals needed to coordinate all of the
computer’s activities.
 Functions of a computer bus
Data sharing – All types of buses used in network transfer data
between the connected computer peripherals. The buses either
transfer or send data in serial or parallel transfer method. This
allows 1, 2, 4, or even 8 bytes of data to be exchanged at a
time. (A Byte is an 8- bit group). Buses are classified according
to how many bits they can move simultaneously, meaning we
have 8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, or even 64-bit buses.
Addressing – A bus has address lines that suit the processors.
This allows us to transfer data to or from different locations in
the memory.
Power – A bus supplies the power to various connected
peripherals.
• Lines are grouped as mentioned below –
Power line provides electrical power to the components
connected
• Data lines carrying data or instructions between modules
of the system
• Address lines indicate the recipient of the bus data
• Control lines control the synchronization and operation of
the bus and the modules linked to the bus
 What are the different types of computer
buses?
Computers normally have two bus types:-
System bus – This is the bus that connects the CPU to the
motherboard’s main memory. The system bus is also known
as a front-side bus, a memory bus, a local bus, or a host bus.
A number of I / O Buses:-connecting various peripheral
devices to the CPU. These devices connect to the system bus
through a ‘bridge’ implemented on the chipset of the
processors. Other I / O bus names include “expansion bus,”
“external
bus” or “host bus”
 Types of Expansion buses
• ISA – Industry Standard Architecture
The Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) bus is still one of the
oldest buses in service today. Although it has been replaced by
faster buses, ISA still has a lot of legacy devices that connect to it
such as cash registers, CNC machines, and barcode scanners.
• Since being expanded to 16 bits in 1984, ISA remains
largely unchanged

EISA – Extended Industry Standard Architecture An upgrade to

ISA is Extended Industry Standard Architecture or EISA. This
doubled the data channels from 16 to 32 and allowed the bus to
be used by more than one CPU.
• MCA – Micro Channel Architecture
IBM developed this bus as a substitute for ISA
when they designed the PS/2 PC which was
launched in 1987. The bus provided some
technological improvements over the ISA bus.
The MCA, for example, ran at a speed of 10MHz
faster and supported either 16-bit or 32-bit data.
One advantage of MCA was that the plug-in cards
were configurable software; that means they
needed minimal user input during configuration.
• VESA Local (VL) Bus
The ISA bus quickly became a bottleneck as graphics
processors; even the 32-bit EISA was not able
to help that much.
The Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA)
Local bus was created to split the load and
allow the ISA bus to handle interrupts and port I/O
(input/output) and the VL bus to work with Direct
Memory Access (DMA) and memory I/O. Because of
its size and other considerations, this was only
a temporary solution.
 PCI – Peripheral Component Interconnect
The PCI bus was developed to solve ISA and VL-bus related issues. PCI
has a 32-bit data path and will run at half the speed of the system
memory bus.
One of its enhancements was to provide connected computers with
direct access to machine memory.
That increased computer efficiency while reducing the CPU ‘s
capacity for interference. Today’s computers mostly have PCI slots.
PCI is considered a hybrid between ISA and VL-Bus that
provides direct access to the connected devices system memory.
This uses a bridge to connect to the front side bus and CPU and is
able to provide higher performance while reducing the potential for
CPU interference.