Precipitation Hardening

Historical background
• German Engineer, Alfred Wilm discovered in
Duralumin during 1903-1911.
• Merica, Walternberg and Scott identified
origin in 1919 which is precipitation from
super saturated solid solution.
• Al-Cu , Al-Mg-Cu , Al-Mg-Si , Al-Mg-Zn ,
• Cu-Be, Cu-Co
 Effect of Ageing on properties of Al 4.5% Cu
Alloy
State of the alloy Tensile Strength Yield Strength % Elongation
MN/ m2 MN/ m2

Annealed 172 69 15

Solutionised & 241 103 40

quenched

Age hardened 414 310 20

Over aged 172 69 20

 Requirements
• Solid solubility should decrease with
decrease in temperature. The phase
diagram should have drooping
solvus.

• The precipitate should be coherent.

Al-Cu Diagram
 Age hardening treatment
• Solutionising –It is the process of heating
the alloy just above solvus temp. to form
single phase α solid solution.
• Quenching – The alloy is cooled fast to
retain super saturated solid solution at RT.
• Ageing – It is the process of controlled
decomposition of super saturated solid
solution to form finely dispersed precipitates.
 Types of Precipitates
• 1. Coherent Precipitate.

• 2. Semi or partially coherent.

• 3. Incoherent
 ©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

Figure 11.8 (a) A noncoherent precipitate has no relationship with the crystal
structure of the surrounding matrix. (b) A coherent precipitate forms so that there
is a definite relationship between the precipitate’s and the matrix’s crystal
structure.

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Coherent Precipitate
Production of semi coherent ppt.
Semi & Incoherent Precipitate
 Precipitation sequence
*The ppt does not form directly from super saturated
solid solution.
*Occurs in steps involving several transition ppts
before equilibrium ppt forms.
*Precipitation sequence in Al-4.5%cu alloy----
1. Thin plates of GP zones on {100} planes.
2. θ” ( GP Zone 2 )
3. θ’
4. θ ( CuAl2 )
 GP Zones
• Guinier – Preston Zones are plate like clusters of mainly
Copper atoms segregated on to { 100 } They have
diameter of @ 1000 A & thickness of only 3-60 A.
• These zones appear to form uniformly & homogeneously
throughout Al lattice with a density of @ 10 18 per cm3.
• Crystal structure of GP zones is same as that of lattice.
• Due to difference in atomic dia., appreciable strain
hardening occurs, called Coherency strains.
• GP zones are responsible for first hardness peak for
alloys aged at 130⁰c .
 θ” Precipitate
• It has definite but different crystal structure
than matrix, with over all composition is CuAl2.
• It is in the plate form of max. thickness 100 A0
& up to maximum dia.1500A0 , with tetragonal
crystal structure.
• θ” ppt has ordered structure & produce
greater distortion than any other transition
structure.
 θ’ Precipitate
• It is large enough to be seen under Optical
microscope.
• It has tetragonal structure, has disc shape & is
semi coherent.
• The elastic strain around these ppts is small.
• It forms heterogeneously.
• Formation of θ’ structure leads to softening of
the alloy.
 θ (CuAl2 ) Precipitate.
• It is equilibrium ppt with tetragonal structure.
• Fully incoherent.
• It’s formation always leads to softening of the
alloy.
• It nucleates heterogeneously.
• More easily formed while ageing at higher
temperature.
• It is ultimate result of over ageing.
 Factors affecting precipitation hardening.

• 1. Effect of composition --- As the amount of

solute increases, hardness increases. But this is
true till maximum solute solubility at eutectic
temperature. If temp. increases beyond that to
have more solute in it, burning / melting occurs.
It is C0 in the diag. If solute content goes beyond
C0, amount of θ (equilibrium ppt) increases with
decrease in amount of super saturated α which
leads to decrease in hardness.
Factors affecting precipitation hardening.
 Factors affecting precipitation hardening
contd.
• GP zone solvus which defines upper
temperature limit of stability of GP zones for
different compositions. It is the temp. for an
alloy above which if ageing is started then GP
zones do not form.

• Presence of Trace / impurity elements.

Section 11.6 Effects of Aging
Temperature and Time

Figure 11.13 The effect

of aging temperature
and time on the yield
strength of an Al-4% Cu
alloy.

©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning™ is a trademark used
herein under license.

27
 Example 11.4 Effect of Aging Heat
Treatment Time on the Strength of Aluminum Alloys

The operator of a furnace left for his hour lunch break without removing the
Al-4% Cu alloy from the furnace used for the aging treatment. Compare the
effect on the yield strength of the extra hour of aging for the aging
temperatures of 190oC and 260oC.

Figure 11.13 The effect

of aging temperature
and time on the yield
strength of an Al-4% Cu
alloy.

©2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson

Learning™ is a trademark used herein under license.

28
Example 11.4 SOLUTION
At 190oC, the peak strength of 400 MPa (60,000 psi) occurs at 2 h
(Figure 11.13). After 3 h, the strength is essentially the same.
At 260oC, the peak strength of 340 MPa (50,000 psi) occurs at
0.06 h. However, after 1 h, the strength decreases to 250 MPa (40,000
psi).
Thus, the higher aging temperature gives lower peak strength and
makes the strength more sensitive to aging time.

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 Retrogression
• If an alloy is age hardened at low temperature ( at
RT ) & if it is reheated to above it’s solvus temp.(~
2500 C ) for a short time (20 to 60 seconds) & then
rapidly cooled ,the alloy becomes soft. But it
becomes harder again on more prolonged heating.
This process is called Reversion or Retrogression.
• It is essentially due to dissolution of GP zones
formed during natural ageing.
• Time of holding is very crucial.
 Retrogression contd.
• If holding time is insufficient---- All GP zones
do not dissolve due to lack of time & softening
may be incomplete.
• If holding time is prolonged --- Hardening
occurs due to precipitation of other transition
ppt.
• Retrogression is reversible if no such new ppts
form at temp. of reheating
 Application of Retrogression
• Due to Retrogression, plasticity of the alloy is
restored so that bending, riveting can be done
 Kinetics Of Precipitation
• The rate of precipitation is faster at higher temp. of
ageing.
• The rate of precipitation is faster in alloys of widely
dissimilar metals.
• Impurities (soluble / insoluble) invariably increase the
rate of precipitation.
• Plastic deformation prior to ageing increases rate of
precipitation.
• At a given ageing temp. lower the mp, faster will be
precipitation rate.
 Hardening mechanisms
• Barriers to dislocation movements are Coherency
strains around the GP zones & GP zones / precipitates.
• Hardening mechanisms are----
• 1.Internal strain hardening by elastic coherency strains
around zones.
• 2.Chemical Hardening due to shearing of precipitate
by moving dislocation.
• 3.Dispertion hardening due to formation of loops
around precipitates.
 Duplex Ageing
• More interested in age hardening of non ferrous alloy
as it is able to overcome properties like stress
corrosion cracking in Al-Zn-Mg alloy.
• During normal ageing, interior of the grains develop
required fine distribution & density of the ppt. but
places near of grain boundaries are Precipitates free
zones. The boundaries get over aged. This leads to
inferior properties.
• Duplex Ageing produces finer ppt & good corrosion
resistance as ppt free zones are absent
 Duplex Ageing Contd
• Duplex Ageing process---
• Holding the alloy at lower & then at higher
temp. for Ageing. At low ageing temp. large no
of ppt nuclei but small ,are formed.
• They grow at to optimum size at a fast rate by
ageing at a second but higher temp. Thus
Duplex Ageing provides higher density &
greater uniformity of distribution of ppt.