Rheology

Learning Objectives

• To define rheology and explain the terms used

• To appreciate the importance of rheology in foods
• To understand the rheological behaviour of Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids
• To explain the factors affecting viscosity in foods.
• To select suitable test methods for rheology

2
 References

• Bourne, M.C. (2002). Food Texture and Viscosity: Concept and Measurement
(2nd ed.). San Diego: Academic Press.
• Rao, M. A. (2007). Rheology of Fluid and Semisolid Foods: Principles and
Applications (2nd ed.). New York: Springer.

3
 What is Rheology?

Rheo-: means flow in Greek; -ology: the study of ..

• Study of deformation and flow of matter.
• Deformation: solid
• Flow: Liquid
Food Rheology
Study of the deformation and flow of the raw materials, the intermediate products
and the final products in the food industry

4
 Why is RHEOLOGY important in
food industry?

• It is important for sensory qualities

• Help develop products with desirable sensory qualities, especially the

texture, body and mouthfeel.

• It is important in food processing

• Crucial when the processing steps involve flow of liquid (such as pumping
of milk), or mixing (such as mixing during cooking of sauces).
5
 Sensory qualities of food: 3 categories

1) Appearance: colour, shape, size, gloss etc.

 Perceived by vision
2) Flavour: taste and aroma (sweetness, saltiness, umaminess, strawberry
flavour, meaty note)
 Perceived by olfaction and gustation
3) Texture: hardness, smoothness, thickness, stickiness, bounciness, dryness
 Perceived by touch, vision and hearing (minor)
6
 Texture

Texture is the attribute of a substance resulting from a combination of

physical properties and perceived by the senses of touch, sight, and hearing.
Physical properties may include size, shape, nature and conformation of
constituent structural elements.

- Jowitt, 1974

7
 Texture

Texture of foods has the following characteristics:

• A group of physical properties that derive from the structure of the food, e.g.
hardness, smoothness, fluffiness.

• Not related to the chemical senses of taste and aroma.

8
Why different foods have different
textural properties?

Protein,
Chemical Physical
Physical
fat,
Composition Structure
Air
sugar,
(chemical analysis) (Microscopy
(Microscopy
water X-ray diffraction)
X-ray diffraction)
Fat globule

Physical properties
(texture or viscosity)

Creaminess, sandiness,
Sensorymelting etc Hardness etc
Mechanical
analysis 9
tests
 Texture

Texture can be determined:

• Subjectively: Sensory evaluation as QDA

• Objectively: Instrumental methods (mechanical

test) e.g. use of texture analyser, viscometer etc...

10
 Texture & Viscosity

• Texture:
 usually refers to solid foods

• Viscosity/ body/ mouthfeel:

 usually refers to liquid/semi-liquid foods

11
 Texture & Viscosity

• Consumers expect certain textural properties in food.

• Failure to meet their expectations will result in rejection of the food.
Identify characteristic textural properties of the follow products:

Yoghurt : thick, smooth

Cracker : brittle (crisp), dry
Bread : soft, chewy, moist
Fuji apple : crunchy, juicy
12
 Application of Rheology in industry

• Viscosity of some fluid may change considerably during processing.

• Particularly in processes which involve heating, cooling, homogenization and
concentration; these viscosity changes need to be considered when designing
these processes.
• E.g. Using bread pre-mix in New Zealand:
 Winter season: dough can be molded by bread molding machine to form
loaves of bread ready for baking.
 Summer season: dough will stick to the bread molding machine

13
 Quiz: True or False

1. Texture properties can only be measured by sensory evaluation.

2. Food rheology mainly studies how foods deform or flow under force.

3. Food products’ viscosity may change during processes.

14
 Terms in Rheology

•• Stress
  () = Force (N)/Area (m2)
: pronounced as “sigma”
Unit: N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
• Strain = L/L = change in length/original length
No unit: it’s a ratio (e.g. 0.2) or a percentage (e.g. 40%)
• Shear rate = shear strain/time (s-1)
Unit: s-1 (pronounced per second or second reciprocal)
• Viscosity () =
h pronounced as “eta”
Unit: Pa.s, mPa.s s pronounced as “sigma”
g pronounced as “gamma”
15
 Stress: force per unit area

Given force = 100 N, area A = 1 m2, area B = 100 m2, which area, A or B, is
experiencing a higher stress?
100N 100N
Stress=100N/1m2 A B Stress=100N/100m2
= 100 Pa = 1 Pa

16
 Types of Stress

Tensile stress: Force

• Stress resulted from force vertically pulling the Area
object.
• Result: object gets extended

Force

17
 Types of Stress
Force
Compressive stress:
• Stress resulted from force vertically Area

compressing the object.

 Result -> object gets compressed L LL

Force

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 Types of Stress

Shear stress: L
Force
• Stress resulted from force pushing the top Area
layer of the object in parallel to the bottom
plane L 

 Result -> object get distorted (top layer

Shear
moves faster than bottom layer)

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 STRAIN: CHANGE IN
DISTANCE
Strain (symbol ε = epsilon)
• refers to change of size / original size of the object under stress

• Linear strain: change in length in a tensile test

 Strain = L/L, where L is change of length and L is original length
 No unit (a ratio)

20
 STRAIN: CHANGE IN
DISTANCE
• Shear strain: deformation in a shearing action (e.g. mixing or pumping)

Change in length,   F
Shear Strain  =
Unit length, b
b

21
 SHEAR RATE: RATE OF
DEFORMATION
• Shear Rate ( γ )
• is the velocity gradient established in a fluid as a result of an applied shear
stress (in other words, it’s rate of deformation).
• If a shearing force F is applied over an area A of the surface of a fluid in contact
with a flat stationary plane, the upper layer of the fluid will move with a
velocity v, while the layer in contact with the plane will remain stationary.
dv
A V V dy
F
Y

22
Y
 SHEAR RATE

• Approximate shear rates of some common phenomena

Shear rates, s-1 Phenomena

0.1 Flow of film over a vertical plate
10 – 100 Shear rate in tumbling or pouring
50 Shear rate in mouth
100 – 1000 Shear rate in most home mixers
>1000 Shear rate in a blender

23
 VISCOSITY

•• Viscosity
  can be considered as the internal friction of a fluid or its internal resistance
to flow
• It is resulted from the internal structure/ inter-molecular force of the liquid
• Liquid with strong internal structure or intermolecular force
 e.g. tomato ketchup has higher viscosity than water

Viscosity () =
• SI unit = Pa.s or mPa.s [1000 mPa.s = 1 Pa.s]
• Other common unit: centi-poise (cP)
• 1 mPa.s = 1 cP 24
VISCOSITY
Substance Viscosity (cP or mPa.s)
Water (0oC) 1.000
Water (20oC) 0.2838
20% sucrose solution (20oC) 1.967
40% sucrose solution (20oC) 6.223
60% sucrose solution (20oC) 56.7
Honey (25oC) 10000
Tomato ketchup (20oC, 10 RPM) 16500
Tomato ketchup (20oC, 5 RPM) 27000 25
 Quiz: Calculation
1. 200N is applied on a surface of 100cm2, calculate the stress (Pa). 200N 100cm2

2. An object has an original length of 1m and is stretched to 1.2m under force.

Calculate the linear strain.

3. A 200Pa of stress is applied to a liquid and results in 500s-1 of shear rate. Calculate
the viscosity of the liquid.

26
 Food Rheology Overview

Solid Elastic
Texture
Viscoelastic

Viscous
Viscosity
Liquid  Newtonian
 Non-Newtonian
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 Food Rheology

Elastic food
• Ideal solids deform reversibly – energy required for deformation is fully
recovered when stress is removed.
• Few foods are perfectly elastic.

h F

Original Original
h shape h shape
Compressed

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 Food Rheology

Elastic food
• When weight is placed on the food, there is an instantaneous elastic
deformation (immediate deformation)
• There is no further change in deformation with time.
• When the weight is removed, there is an instantaneous elastic recovery to its
original height (immediate recovery).
• Examples: gelatin dessert (e.g. gummy bear, jelly)

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Deformation-time relationship for an elastic food
under constant stress

Deformation = h Force
removed
Gelatin desserts
Deformation h

Instantaneous Instantaneous
Elastic Elastic
deformation recovery

Gummy bear
Time
Force
applied
Deformation = h = 0
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 Food Rheology

Viscoelastic food
• When the weight is removed, there is an instantaneous partial elastic recovery.
• Followed by retarded recovery
• The food does not return to its original height.
• It is permanently and irreversibly compressed (permanent deformation).
• Example: bread, steamed bun (mantou), bao

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Deformation-time relationship for a
viscoelastic food under constant stress
Force
removed

Instantaneous
Elastic
Retarded recovery
deformation
Deformation h

Retarded
Instantaneous recovery
Elastic
deformation
Permanent deformation
Time
Force
applied
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 Viscoelastic Food
Force
h=2.2cm
Force
h=1.9cm Steamed 2.8cm
Bun
Steamed
Bun 3.1cm Force
removed
Force Force
h=1.5cm h=1.4cm
Instantaneous
Steamed Elastic Steamed
3.5cm Retarded 3.6cm
Bun recovery Bun
deformation
Deformation h

Retarded Force
recovery h=0.2cm
Instantaneous
Steamed Elastic Steamed
5cm deformation 4.8cm
Bun Bun
Permanent deformation=0.2cm
Time
Force 33
applied
How much is the permanent deformation?
 Quiz: True or False

1. Pandan cake is a typical elastic food.

2. It is rare to find absolutely elastic food in the food industry.

3. There is permanent deformation in elastic food.

34
Types of Viscous Behaviour
Liquid

Newtonian Non-Newtonian

Shear rate Time

Dependency Dependency

Plastic Dilatant Thixotropic Rheopectic

(shear (shear thickening) (shear thinning) (shear
thinning)
thickening)
Pseudoplastic
(shear thinning) 35
 Newtonian Fluid

• Ideal fluids deform irreversibly

• Material begins to flow when the deforming force is applied
• It continues to flow as long as the force is being applied
• There is no recovery of shape when force is removed
• Viscosity does not change with shear rate or time
• Examples of Newtonian fluids are: water, sugar syrup/solutions, honey, milk, soft
drinks, clear juices, edible oil -> what do they have in common?
• Solution consists of small-molecule solutes at low concentration (with the exception
of honey)
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 Newtonian Fluid

• Viscosity is constant with shear rate and time

• Shear rate is directly proportional to the shear stress
• Plot begins at the origin (0, 0)
• A fluid with high viscosity is called “viscous”, while fluid with low viscosity is called
“mobile”.

Viscous Viscous
One-point
Viscosity η
Shear stress

Intermediate Intermediate test?

Mobile
Mobile
σ

37
Shear rate Shear rate
 Newtonian Fluid

• Underlying reasons for Newtonian behaviour

• Small solute molecules are well dispersed in a solution as they
are separated by water molecules
• They do not entangle with each other to form a network, at At low shear rate
either low or high shear rate
• Hence their resistance to flow (i.e. viscosity) is constant at
different shear rate (in other words, they behave the same way
at different shear rates)
Solute At high shear rate
(e.g. sucrose)
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 Newtonian Fluid

• Viscosity is independent of the shear rate within the laminar flow range.
• Laminar flow is a streamline flow in a fluid.
• Turbulent flow is a fluid flow in which the velocity varies erratically in
magnitude and direction.

nt
u le
nte

b
bul

Tur
Shear stress σ

Onset of
Tur

Viscosity η
turbulence Laminar

i nar Onset of
Lam turbulence

Shear rate Shear rate 39

 Newtonian Fluid

• Laminar flow occurs at slow rates of flow

• Turbulent flow occurs at high rates of flow
• Newtonian fluid will lose its Newtonian behavior and appear to be non-
Newtonian when turbulent flow begins
• The point at which the onset of turbulence occurs is known as the critical
Reynolds number, Rc.
• Re = 2ρQ/πrη (FYI)
• Re is the Reynold number, ρ = density of liquid; Q = the rate of flow; r
= radius of pipe;  = viscosity
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Laminar vs turbulent flow

Laminar flow: slow and calm Turbulent flow: fast and erratic
41
 Newtonian Fluid

In Summary
• Shear rate is directly proportional to the shear stress
• Viscosity is independent of the shear rate within the laminar flow range or
viscosity is constant with changing shear rate or time

Viscous
Viscous
Shear stress σ

Viscosity η
Intermediate Intermediate

Mobile
Mobile
42
Shear rate Shear rate
 Quiz: True or False
1. Newtonian fluid has constant viscosity in both laminar and turbulent flow regions.

2. The solutes in Newtonian fluid behave in similar patterns under both under low
and high shear rate (within laminar flow region)

3. 100 Plus isotonic drink is a typical Newtonian fluid.

43
 Non-Newtonian Fluid

• Plastic or Bingham
• Pseudoplastic Shear rate dependent (viscosity changes with shear rate)
• Dilatant

• Thixotropic
Time dependent (viscosity changes with time)
• Rheopectic

44
 Plastic or Bingham Fluid

• Named after Bingham who discovered the important principle that no flow occurs
at low stress.
• Apparent viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate (shear thinning)
• The term ‘plastic’ refers to materials that exhibit the yield stress (NOT synthetic
plastic)
• Must exceed a minimum shear stress known as “Yield Stress” before the flow
begins Is this rheological
 e.g. must squeeze ketchup bottle before it can flow behaviour desirable for
ketchup?

• Yield Stress results from internal structure of food that binds it together
45
 Plastic or Bingham Fluid

• Viscosity obtained is Apparent Viscosity, or viscosity at that particular shear

rate (e.g. 200 mPas at 50RPM)
• Cannot use “1-point test” for plastic fluid, as viscosity decreases with shear
rate
• Typical examples are liquid/semi-liquid with substantial body:
o Tomato ketchup o Mayonnaise

o Oyster sauce o Whipped cream

o Chilli sauce o Margarine

46
 Plastic or Bingham Fluid

• Plot of shear stress vs. shear rate: straight line with an intercept on the y-
axis (yield stress = a, b, c).
• Plot of Apparent viscosity vs. shear rate: apparent viscosity decreases with
increasing shear rate-> Shear Thinning

A
Yield stress B
Shear stress σ

b C Viscosity ηa
c
A
B
a
C
47
a Shear rate ( γ
) b Shear rate ( γ )
 Pseudoplastic Fluid

• Viscosity obtained is apparent viscosity

• Apparent viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate (shear thinning)
• No yield stress; fluid starts to flow as long as force is applied
• Cannot use “1-point test” as viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate
• E.g. salad dressing

Salad dressing is a
lot more watery
than ketchup and
hence does not
have a yield stress
48
 Pseudoplastic Fluid

• An increase in shear stress gives a more than proportional increase in shear

rate (convex curve)
• Viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate

a b

Viscosity ηa
At low shear
Shear stress σ

rate,
pseudoplastic
fluid behaves like
Newtonian Newtonian fluid.
regime
Shear rate ( γ ) Shear rate ( γ )
49
 Underlying reasons for shear-
thinning behaviour
• At low shear rate, macro-molecules entangle with each
other to form some structure that significantly increases
viscosity
• At high shear rate, macro-molecules extend and align
At low shear rate
themselves in the direction of the flow
Direction of shear
• This in turn reduces resistance to flow (i.e. viscosity) at
higher shear rate, hence resulting in shear-thinning
behaviour
Solutes are macro-
molecules At high shear rate
(e.g. starch, pectin,
carrageenan) 50
 Dilatant Fluid

• Liquid that contains a high concentration of insoluble rigid particles in suspension

 e.g. un-gelatinized starch granules

• Property of dilatancy appears in suspensions with about 40% - 70% of solids

concentration
 It will disappear when suspension is diluted

• This type of fluid is fairly rare in the food industry and extremely rare in finished
products.
 e.g. starch suspension (note: it’s different from starch gel or solution, which are made from
gelatinized starch).
51
 Dilatant Fluid

• Viscosity obtained is apparent viscosity

• Viscosity increases with increasing shear rate (shear thickening)
Shear stress σ

Viscosity ηa

a Shear rate (γ ) b Shear rate ( γ )

52
 Underlying reasons for shear-
thickening behaviour At low shear rate

• When the concentration of solid particles is very high, at low shear

rate, there is just enough water to fill in the void between particles,
which helps reduce viscosity (e.g. water as the lubricant)
• At high shear rate, solid particles collide into each other and form
entanglement, which significantly increases viscosity At high shear rate
• As water is “squeezed out”, these suspension appears “dry”

When you hit

Solute
the starch
suspension, it (e.g. raw corn starch)
feels like rock
53
solid
 Time Dependence

• Time independent: At a given shear rate, viscosity remains constant over time
• Time dependent: At a given shear rate, viscosity changes with time

Thixotropic Fluid (Shear Thinning with time)

• The apparent viscosity decreases with the time of shearing
• Structure weakens from prolonged shearing (e.g. mixing)
• e.g. starch paste gel
Rheopectic Fluid (Shear Thickening with time)
• The apparent viscosity increases with time of shearing
• Rarely found in food industry
54
 Quiz
1. Identify the type of fluid based on the graphs shown below and name one example
of food that belongs to that category.

Shear stress
Shear stress

Shear stress

a a Shear rate Shear rate

Shear rate

Hint: draw two dots on the line and compare the angle of two red lines. If the angle 55
is getting larger, it is shear thickening
 Factors Affecting Viscosity

• Temperature

• Concentration of solute

• Molecular weight of solute

• Suspended matter

56
 Temperature

• Usually an inverse relationship between viscosity and

temperature
200
• As temperature increases, viscosity decreases
• At higher temperature, molecules have higher energy and move

Viscosity (mPa.s)
faster
 less resistance to flow 60% Sucrose
40% Sucrose
• As viscosity is very temperature dependent, important to 2
20% Sucrose
control the experimental temperature and state the Water
temperature when quoting viscosity data 0 Temperature (oC) 100
 E.g. 150mPas at 25oC

57
 Concentration of Solute

• A direct nonlinear positive relationship between the

concentration of a solute and viscosity, at a constant 200
temperature.

Viscosity (mPa.s)
• As concentration of solute increases, viscosity increases
• Higher concentration of solute, higher resistance to 2
flow, as each solute molecule contributes some
resistance 0.5

0 20 40 60
Concentration (% w/w)

58
 Molecular Weight of Solute

• A direct nonlinear positive relationship between the molecular

weight (MW) of solute and the viscosity of the solution at equal
50000
concentration.
• As MW increases, viscosity increases

Viscosity (mP.s)
• Corn syrup / maltodextrin is made by hydrolyzing high MW starch
into shorter chain polysaccharide. 500
• D.E. = dextrose equivalent (measures how close the
20
maltodextrin’s composition is to dextrose (glucose)) 10
30 40 50
• Low D.E.  long chain high molecular weight (similar to starch) Solids (%)
60

• High D.E.  short chain low molecular weight (similar to glucose)

• Higher the D.E. value, lower the viscosity
59
 Suspended Matter

• Usually increases the viscosity slightly when at low concentrations

• At high concentrations, suspended matter can increase viscosity substantially because of
entanglement between particles and formation of a continuous network
• E.g. Pureed fruit /vegetable juices have insoluble cell wall material and fibers suspended in
water. Their viscosity is higher than clear juices.

Suspended
matter is
undissolved
substance in a
liquid 60
 Quiz
Identify the factors involved in the following scenarios that affect viscosity.
1. Honey stored in fridge is much harder to scoop out
than that is stored under room temperature.

2. Juice concentrate is normally much thicker than

ready-to-drink clear juice.

3. A sauce that contains 5% starch is thicker than a

sauce that contains 5% DE10 maltodextrin.

61
 Instruments for Texture Measurements

● Force measuring instruments

o Puncture test o Compression tests
o Compression-Extrusion test o Tensile tests
o Cutting-shear test o Bending and Snapping test

● Distance measuring instruments

o Linear measuring instruments
o Volume measuring instruments
● Multiple measuring instruments
o TA.XT2 Texture analyzer
o Instron
62
 Force Measuring Instruments:
Puncture Test

• Measures the force required to push a punch or probe into a food

• Penetration of punch into the food causing irreversible crushing or flowing
of the food
• The depth of penetration is usually held constant
• A true puncture test assumes that the sample size is much larger than the
punch that edge effects and bottom effects are insignificant
 Diameter of the sample should be at least 3 times the diameter of the punch.
 For fracturable food the ratio may need to be greater than 3.
 This is called ‘semi-infinite geometry’ 63
 Puncture Test

Uses:
• For measuring firmness of fruits (ripeness) and some vegetables

 e.g. Magness-Taylor

Magness-Taylor

• For measuring strength of gelatins and gelatin jellies.

 E.g. Bloom Gelometer

64
Bloom Gelometer
 Puncture Test

5 basic types of curves obtained from puncture testers:

A Typified by freshly harvested apples

YP YP YP YP B Typified by ripe pears, peaches & apples

that have been in cold storage a long time
C Most raw vegetables exhibit this type of
A B behavior
D Obtained on some starch pastes and
C D E whipped topping and foams
E • Found in some starch pastes
• No yield point (YP)
Distance • Unsuited to puncture test

“Yield point” (YP) occurs when the punch begins to penetrate into
the food, which is represented by the sudden change in slope.
65
 Force Measuring Instruments:
Compression Extrusion Test
• Back extrusion: apply force to food until it flows through an outlet.
• The maximum force needed to accomplish extrusion is measured and is Annulus
used as an index to texture quality
 e.g. Pea Tenderometer
Uses:
Food
• Viscous liquid, gels, fats, fresh and processed vegetables and fruits
• For foods that flow fairly readily under an applied force
• Not suitable for foods that do not flow easily e.g. bread, cakes, cookies,
breakfast cereals and candy
66
 A typical extrusion test graph
Point C: gives the force necessary to begin the process of extrusion
and the plateau C-D shows the force needed to continue extrusion.
B-C: the pack is solid except for C
small amounts of entrapped air, D
and the force increases steeply
from B to C pressing out the
Forc
remaining juice in the process.
e

A-B: food is deformed and

0
compressed to pack tightly.
No rupture or breaking of the
food. Liquid will be pressed
out from high moisture food.
A
0 Distance
C-D: the food begins to rupture and flow up through
the annulus and this process continues to point D
when the compressing platen reverses direction and
67
the force falls to zero.
 Force Measuring Instruments:
Cutting Shear Test

• Involves a cutting action using a blade

Uses:
• To measure toughness of meat products & fruits
• e.g. Warner-Bratzler Shear

68
Warner-Bratzler Shear
 Force Measuring Instruments:
Compression Test

• The sample is compressed in one direction and is unrestrained in the other two
dimensions.
• It causes a change in shape.
• Typically the platen that compressed the food should be larger in diameter than
the food specimen for a true compression test. Otherwise, it becomes a puncture
test.
• For measuring the hardness/ firmness of solid foods

69
Which one is a true compression test?
 Distance Measuring Instruments:
Linear & Volume

Linear Principle:
• Fluid or semi-fluid food sample is allowed to flow for specific period of time
and the distance traveled was measured as an indication of the viscosity of
the product.
• e.g. Bostwick Consistometer (measures the consistency of a thick liquid in a
quick but crude manner; often used for quick QC or comparison purposes).

70
 Distance Measuring Instruments:
Linear & Volume

Volume Principle:
Seed replacement
• Traditional method: volume replacement using method
fine particle such as rapeseed or sago.

• New technology: volume scanner (use laser Volume scanner

scanning technology to accurately profile the food
sample)

71
 Quiz
Identify the type of test performed by the following equipment.

72
 Multiple Measuring Instruments

• A basic machine can be configured for different kinds of tests such as

stickiness, fracturability, hardness, firmness by using different probes
• e.g. Stable Micro Systems TA.XT2, Instron

73
Stable Micro Systems Texture analyser Instron system
 Texture profile analysis

• Texture profile analysis (TPA) is a commonly used method performed by texture

analyser that measures multiple textural attributes in a food, such as hardness,
springiness, cohesiveness, etc.

Principle of TPA:
• The machine compresses a bite-size food sample twice to imitate the action of the
jaw, and extracts from the resulting force-time curve (TPA), a number of textural
parameters that correlate well with sensory evaluation of those parameters.

74
Video: TPA on white bread

As the round probe

compresses the bread
twice, a graph with
two peaks was plotted
in real time.

X-axis is time and Y-

axis is force required
to compress the
bread.

75
 Texture profile analysis

First bite Second bite

Downstroke Upstroke Downstroke Upstroke

Hardness

Fracturability

Cohesiveness
Force

Area 1
Springiness Area 2

0
Length 1 Area 3 Length 2

Time
Adhesiveness
76
 Texture profile analysis

Texture Properties obtained from TPA:

 Hardness = The height of the force peak in the first compression cycle (first bite)
 Fracturability (or brittleness) = The force of the first significant break in the first bite
 Cohesiveness
 (Measures how well the food can bind together upon compression without
crumbling)
 = The ratio of the positive force areas under the first and second compressions
(Area 2/Area 1)

77
 Texture profile analysis

Texture Properties obtained from TPA:

• Adhesiveness (stickiness) = the negative force area of the first bite (Area 3)
• Gumminess = hardness X cohesiveness
• Springiness
 how much distance the food can bounce back after compression
 = Length 2/Length 1
• Chewiness = gumminess X springiness

78
 Quiz: interpreting a TPA graph

280 g

Hardness
190 g
Cohesiveness
Force,

Adhesiveness
Gumminess
g

350 g s
Sprininess
220 g
s
- 26 g
0 s
5.4 s 3.8 s
Time, s
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Congratulations! You’ve made it to the end.

END of Topic.

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