Industrial Electronics I: IE501 Lecture 7b Semester 1, 2020-21

Industrial Electronics I
IE501
Lecture 7b
Semester 1, 2020-21
Topics Covered
This lecture will:
• Cover Karnaugh maps.
Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 2

Reading For This Week
• M. Morris Mano & Charles Kime, Logic and Computer Design
Fundamentals, 4th Ed., USA: Prentice Hall
– Read Chapter 2 on Simplifying Logic circuits & Karnaugh Maps.
• Thomas Floyd, Digital Fundamentals : A Systems Approach, 9th Ed., USA:

Prentice Hall.
– Read chapter 4 on logic simplification & Karnaugh maps.
• Kuphaldt, Tony R. (2014). Lessons In Electric Circuits, Vol IV —Digital.

– Read Chapter 7 on Boolean algebra.
– http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/Digital/DIGI_3.html
– This is a free online book available at the above link. Also available for download
as a pdf file.
– See also the associated website: http://www.allaboutcircuits.com/

Boolean Function Optimization
• Goal: To obtain the simplest implementation for a
given function
• Boolean Algebra and graphical techniques are tools to
minimize (optimize) implementation of logic
functions.
• Some important questions:
– What is the “best” (most minimized) expression of a logic
function?
– Do we know when we have a minimum expression?
• Introduce a graphical technique using Karnaugh maps
(K-maps, for short)

Karnaugh Map (K-map)
• A K-map is a collection of cells
– Each cell represents a minterm or maxterm
– The collection of cells is a graphical representation of a Boolean
function
– Adjacent cells differ in the value of one variable
– Alternative algebraic expressions for the same function are
derived by recognizing patterns of cells
• The K-map can be viewed as
– A reorganized version of the truth table
– A topologically-warped Venn diagram, as used to visualize sets in
algebra of sets (the Kuphaldt & the Floyd books both reference
Venn diagrams as a way of understanding Boolean logic)

Some Uses of K-Maps
• Provide a means for:
– Finding optimum or near optimum
• SOP and POS expressions, and
• two-level AND/OR and OR/AND circuit
implementations
for functions with small numbers of variables
– Visualizing concepts related to manipulating
Boolean expressions, and
– Demonstrating concepts used by computer-
aided design programs to simplify large circuits

K-Map and Truth Tables
• The K-Map is just a different form of the truth table.
• Example – Two variable function:
– a, b, c and d are used in the truth table below to illustrate where
in the K-map the outputs of the function F(x, y), are mapped.
Truth Table
K-Map
i x y F(x, y) F y
0 0 0 a x 0 1
0 1
1 0 1 b
0 a b
2 3
2 1 0 c 1 c d
3 1 1 d
Adjacency in Two Variable Maps
• A 2-variable Karnaugh Map:
– Note that minterm m0 and minterm m1 F y=0 y=1
are “adjacent” and differ in the y
variable. m0 m1
– Similarly, minterm m0 and minterm m2 x=0
xy xy
differ in the x variable. m2 m3
– Also, m1 and m3 differ in the x variable. x = 1
xy x y
– Finally, m2 and m3 differ in the y variable.
• Thus, 2 “adjacent” cells share a side and differ in a
single variable (with the variable in one cell & its
complement in the other).
– Therefore m0 and m3 are NOT adjacent.
– And m1 and m2 are NOT adjacent.
Combining Cells on 2-Variable Maps
• By combining cells, we reduce number of literals in a
product term
• On a 2-variable K-Map:
– One cell represents a minterm with two variables
– Two adjacent cells represent a simplified product term
with one variable
– Four “adjacent” cells is the function of all ones (no
variables) = 1.

Example 1: Combining 2-Variable Map Cells
F y
• Example: F(x, y) = x x 0 1
0 1
0 0 0
2 3
1 1 1
x
• The two adjacent cells containing 1’s can be
combined using rule 6: :
F ( x , y )  x y  xy  x( y  y )  x
1
Example 2: Combining 2-Variable Map Cells
• Example: G(x, y) = x + y y
G y
x 0 1
0 1
0 0 1
2 3
1 1 1
x
• For G(x, y), two pairs of adjacent cells containing 1’s can
be combined using rule 6:
G (x, y ) = x y + x y + x y = x y + x y + x y + x y
( )(
Duplicate x y using = x y + x y + x y + x y = x + y
rule 5: A + A = A
)
to get: xy + xy = xy
Combining Cells on 2-Variable Maps
• Example: G(x, y) = x + y y
G y
x 0 1
0 1
0 0 1
2 3
1 1 1
x
• NOTE: any border contained inside a group or loop means that the
variable that changes across that border is eliminated according to rule 6.
• For the group containing minterms 2 & 3, the variable that changes
across the border is y. ⸫ the product term is simply x.
• For the group containing minterms 1 & 3, the variable that changes
across the border is x. ⸫ the product term is simply y.

Three Variable Maps
• A three-variable K-map:
yz=00 yz=01 yz=11 yz=10
x=0 m0 m1 m3 m2
x=1 m4 m5 m7 m6
• Where each minterm corresponds to the product terms:
yz=00 yz=01 yz=11 yz=10
x y z x y z x y z x y z
x=0
x y z
x=1 x y z x y z x y z
• Note that if the binary value for an index differs in one bit
position, the minterms are adjacent on the K-Map

Three Variable Maps
F
• Alternate construction – this
is what is used in the Floyd z=0 z=1
book. xy=00 m0 m1
xy=01 m2 m3
• Note: If a problem provides a
K-map in a different format xy=11 m6 m7
than you are used to, simply xy=10 m4 m5
redraw it in the format you
prefer and solve the problem.

Alternative Map Labeling
• Map use largely involves:
– Entering values into the map, and
– Reading off product terms from the map.
• Alternate labelings are useful, e.g.:
y y yz y
00 01 11 10 x 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
x 0 00 1 3 2
4 7 6
x 1
5
x 14 5 7 6
z z z z
Example Functions
•• By
convention, we represent the minterms of F by a "1" in the
map and leave the maxterms of F (the “0”s) blank. Recall: the
maxterms of F = minterms of = the “0”s.
• Example: yz y
F(x, y, z)  m(2,3,4,5) x 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
0 1 1
4 5 7 6
x1 1 1
• Example:
G(x, y, z)  m(3,4,6,7) z
• NOTE: Learn the locations of the yz y
x 00 01 11 10
8 indices based on the variable 0 1 3 2
order shown (x, most significant 0 1
and z, least significant) on the x1 41 5 7
1
6
1
map boundaries
Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b
z 19
Combining Cells on 3-variable Maps
• By combining cells, we reduce number of literals in a
product term
• On a 3-variable K-Map:
– One cell represents a minterm with three variables
– Two adjacent cells represent a simplified product term
with two variables
– Four “adjacent” cells represent a simplified product
term with one variable
– Eight “adjacent” cells is the function of all ones (no
variables) = 1.

Example: Combining Cells
y
•• Example:
Let 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
F(x, y, z)   m (2,3,6,7) 0 1 1
x 14 5 7
1
6
1
z
• Applying rule 6 () three times:
F ( x, y, z ) = x y z + x y z + x y z + x y z
= y z+ yz
=y
• Thus the four terms that form a 2 × 2 square correspond
to the term "y".
SOP K-Mapping Rules for Combining Cells
• In SOP maps, only 1s can be inside a group or loop. All 1s MUST be in a group/loop
• No diagonal groups/loops allowed.
• The number of cells in each group or loop must be a power of 2: (i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, etc.
cells).
• Each group or loop should be as big as possible, containing the most cells possible.
This allows the most variables to be eliminated.
• Groups or loops can overlap – but total overlap not is allowed (see next point).
• Every group or loop MUST contain at least one 1 that is NOT inside any other loop.
• Create the smallest possible number of biggest groups or loops THAT COVERS ALL
THE 1s (this yields the fewest terms in the simplified equation).
• The leftmost & rightmost cells are adjacent. Imagine the map wrapping around like a
cylinder, so that the rightmost cell edges meet the leftmost cell edges (called
topological warping). See next slide.
• Credit for summary of above Karnaugh mapping rules: D. Belton, April 1998,
http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Projects/Labview/minimisation/karrules.html
Three-Variable Maps
• 3-variable K-map that shows edge adjacencies,
which allow groups or loops to wrap around:
 K-map  Cylinder
y
0 1 3 2
x 4 5 7 6

Three-Variable Maps
• Example Shapes of 2-cell Groups:
00 01 11
y 10
0 1 3 2
0
4 5 7 6
x1
z
• Read off the product terms for the groups shown
Three-Variable Maps
• Example Shapes of 4-cell Groups:
00 01 11
y 10
0 1 3 2
0
4 5 7 6
x1
z
• Read off the product terms for the groups shown

Simplifying with SOP K-Maps
• Draw & label the K-map as shown in earlier slides
• Group/loop adjacent cells containing 1s (the minterms)
using the rules on the previous slide
– Remember, choose the “smallest number of biggest loops”
• Eliminate variables that change across borders in each loop
• Create a PRODUCT term from the remaining variables left
in each loop. Remember:
– Where variable = 1 write the variable in the product term
– Where variable = 0 write the complement in the product term
• SUM (or OR) product terms together to create the
simplified sum of products (SOP) expression.

Example: Simplifying with 3-Variable Map
 K-Maps can be used to simplify Boolean functions by
systematic methods. Terms are selected to cover the
“1s” on SOP maps.
 Example: Simplify F(x, y, z)  m(1,2,3,5,7)
z y 𝐱𝐲

00 01 11 10
0 1 1 1
x 1 1 1
z
F(x, y, z) = z + x y
Another Example: 3-Variable Map Simplification
• Use a K-map to find an optimum SOP equation
for F(X, Y, Z)  m(0,1,2,4,6,7)

Four Variable Maps
 Map and location of minterms:
YZ Y
WX 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
00
4 5 7 6
01
Variable X
12 13 15 14
Order: WXYZ 11
W
Replace with 8 9 11 10
10
any other set of
variables in the
same order. Z
E.g.: ABCD
Four Variable Terms
 Four variable maps can have groups
corresponding to:
• A single 1 (i.e. Minterm) = 4 variables,
• Two 1s = 3 variables,
• Four 1s = 2 variables
• Eight 1s = 1 variable,
• Sixteen 1s = zero variables (i.e. constant "1")

Four-Variable Maps
• 4-variable K-map that shows edge adjacencies,
which allow groups or loops to wrap around:
 Side to side Top to bottom

Credit: http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/Digital/dig24.php
Image location: http://www.learnabout-electronics.org/Digital/images/Karnaugh-groups-1.jpg
Four-Variable Maps
• This top-bottom AND side-side wrap around turns the
4-variable K-map into a torus or doughnut. This makes
the 4 corners adjacent to each other:
 Torus (doughnut shape) K-map 
"Karnaugh6" by Jochen Burghardt - Own work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via Commons -
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Karnaugh6.gif#/media/File:Karnaugh6.gif
Four-Variable Maps
• Example Shapes of Groups:
YZ Y
WX 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
00
4 5 7 6
01
X
12 13 15 14
11
W
8 9 11 10
10

Four-Variable Maps
Note: borders in
• Example Shapes of Groups: black in order to
highlight groups (or
YZ Y loops in colour.
WX 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
00
4 5 7 6
01
X
12 13 15 14
11
W
8 9 11 10
10
Z
Four-Variable Map Simplification
Simplify:

YZ Y
WX 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
00
4 5 7 6
01
X
12 13 15 14
11
W
8 9 11 10
10
Z
Four-Variable Map Simplification
• Simplify:
F(A, B, C, D)  m(0,2,3,8,9,10,11,12, 13,14,15)
CD C
00 01 11 10
AB
00
01
B
11
A
10
D
Selection Example with Multiple Possible Loops
• One approach is to find ALL loops first.
• Next, select the “essential” loops that cover 1s that no other loops can cover
• Then choose the minimum number of remaining loops that still cover all 1s,
and remove the redundant loops.
BD
CD
CD C CD C
00 01 11 10 00 01 11 10
AB BD AB
00 1 1 1 00
BD 01 1 1 BD 01
B B
11 1 1 11
A A
10 1 1 1 1 10
AB
D D
AD Minterms covered by single loop
Semester 1, 2020-21 BC IE501, Lecture 7b 42
Selection Example with Multiple Possible Loops
• Another example: Simplify F(A, B, C, D) given on the
K-map.
Selected Essential
C C
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
B B
1 1
A A
1 1 1 1
D D

Practice Example with Multiple Possible Loops
Simplify:


Practice Example with Multiple Possible Loops
• Simplify:
G(A, B, C, D)  m(0,2,3,4,7,12,13,14,15)
– Hint: There are seven loops!
CD C
00 01 11 10
AB
00
01
B
11
A
10
D
Don't Cares in K-Maps
• Sometimes a K-map contains entries where:
– the input values for the minterm will never occur, or
– The output value for the minterm will not be used
• In these cases, the output value need not be defined
• Instead, the output value is defined as a “don't care”
• By placing “don't cares” (as “X” entries) in the K-map, the logic circuit may
simplified further.
• Because we “don’t care”, each don’t care “X” entry may be treated as either
a 1 or 0 value on the resulting map and either included or excluded from the
loops, depending on what is needed to create the biggest loops. Recall: the
bigger the loop the more variables eliminated, & the simpler the solution.
• For example, an “X” may take on value “0” in an SOP solution and value
“1” in a POS solution, or vice-versa.
• Any minterm with value “X” does not need to be covered by a loop.

Selection Example with Don't Cares
• Simplify F(A, B, C, D) given on the K-map.
Selected Essential
C C
1 x 1 x
1 x x 1 1 x x 1
B B
x x
A A
1 1 x 1 1 x
D D

Don't Cares in K-Maps
Example: A 4-input logic function having the binary

codes for the BCD digits as its inputs.
• Only the codes for 010 through 910 are used.
• The six codes for 1010 through 1510, (1010 through
1111) never occur.
• So the output values for these codes are labeled “X”
to represent “don’t cares.”

Example 1: BCD “5 or More”
• The map below gives a function F1(w,x,y,z) with BCD inputs.

• F1 = 1 when the input combinations = 510 or more. With don't
cares used for the 6 non-BCD combinations, we get this:
yz y
wx 00 01 11 10
00 00 01 03 02 F1(w,x,y,z) = w + x z + x y
01 04 15 17 16 Don’t cares are treated as “1s” (i.e. X 
x
1).
w
11 X12 X13 X15 X14 F2(w, x, y, z) = w x z + w x y + w x y
10 1 8 1 9 X11 X10 For F2 the don't cares are treated as “0s”
z (i.e. X  0), & not included in loops.
F1 is much simpler than F2 where the “don't cares” are not used
Product of Sums (POS) K-Maps
• How do we draw & use the K-map to produce a

simplified (or optimum) Product of Sums (POS)
solution?

Product of Sums (POS) K-Maps
• Draw the POS K-map the same way as you do the SOP K-map. See
next slide on labeling POS K-maps
• Group/loop adjacent cells containing 0s (the maxterms).
– Use the same rules as SOP K-maps (see earlier slide), but replace “1s” with “0s”
– Remember, select the “smallest number of biggest loops”
• Eliminate variables that change across borders in each loop (like the
SOP K-maps)
• Create a SUM term from the remaining variables in each loop.
Remember, for POS:
– Where variable = 0 write the variable in the sum term
– Where variable = 1 write the complement in the sum term
• Multiply (or AND) sum terms together to create the simplified product
of sums (POS) expression.
Product of Sums K-Maps
• Note the POS labeling is opposite of SOP:
– Where the variable = 0, label rows/columns with the variable
– Where the variable = 1, label rows/columns with the complement
YZ 𝒀 𝒀
WX 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
𝑿
00
𝑾
4 5 7 6
01
𝑿
12 13 15 14
11
𝑾
8 9 11 10
10 𝑿
𝒁 𝒁 𝒁
Product of Sums Example
Find the optimum POS solution for:
𝐹 ( 𝑊 , 𝑋 , 𝑌 , 𝑍 ) =∏ (0 , 2 ,5 , 7 , 8 ,10)∙ ∏ (1 , 4 ,6)
𝑀 𝐷
YZ 𝒀 𝒀
WX 00 01 11 10
0 1 3 2
𝑿
00
𝑾
4 5 7 6
01
𝑿
12 13 15 14
11
𝑾
8 9 11 10
10 𝑿
𝒁 𝒁 𝒁
Product of Sums Example
• Find the optimum POS solution for:
F(A,B,C,D)  m (3,9,11,12 ,13,14,15) 
 d
(1,4,6)
– Hint: Use , find SOP solution and complement it

to get the POS result.
• NOTE: when complementing F, the “don’t
cares” remain the same (i.e. the complement
of a don’t care is a don’t care!).

Summary
•• The
Karnaugh map (K-map) provides a systematic (and
graphical) approach to simplifying combinational logic with a
small number of input variables.
• Minterms (or maxterms) can be combined when they differ in
only one variable (i.e. they are adjacent on a K-map)
• E.g.:
• Deriving a minimum SOP or POS form is accomplished by
eliminating variables that change value within groups/loops of
adjacent minterms or maxterms. The resulting combination of
simplified terms is the minimum SOP (or POS) form.
• The K-map illustrates this combination graphically

Questions/Comments/Discussion

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Industrial Electronics I

Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 2

• Thomas Floyd, Digital Fundamentals : A Systems Approach, 9th Ed., USA:

• Kuphaldt, Tony R. (2014). Lessons In Electric Circuits, Vol IV —Digital.

Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 3

Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 4

Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 5

Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 6

Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 10

Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 14

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Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 28

• Read off the product terms for the groups shown

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Example: A 4-input logic function having the binary

Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 49

• The map below gives a function F1(w,x,y,z) with BCD inputs.

• How do we draw & use the K-map to produce a

Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 51

– Hint: Use , find SOP solution and complement it

Semester 1, 2020-21 IE501, Lecture 7b 55

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