Hormone = Regulatory molecule

for signalling and

cell communication

Others: Enzymes (catalytic)

Neurotransmitters
Growthfactors and
Cytokines
Vit A and D derivatives
(retinoic acd, calcitriol)

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Regulatory system is essential.

Organism (body system) constantly makes

homeostatic adaptation to respond to
changing environment (condition)

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Hormones interact with receptors

Receptor = protein molecule capable of

conformational changes

Result of H-R interaction:

Intracellular signal

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Signal can have various targets depending
type of hormone and its specific receptor.

Specific receptors only present in function

related cells

Ex: Insulin receptors present in muscle

but not in liver cells.

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Intracellular signals are passed on in
several steps (cascade) before
accomplishing its purpose, such as
- enzyme activation thru
phosphorylation
- gene activity for protein
expression (biosynthesis)

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Chemical Nature of Hormones

a. Peptides

b. Amino acid derivatives

c. Steroids

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ad. a. Insulin
Decreases blood glucose after meals

Glucagon
Releases gluc into blood in fasting state

ad. b. Catecholamines
(Tyrosine derivatives)
- Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
- Noradrenaline (Norepinephrine)

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ad. c Steroids ( see cholesterol structure)
Intact steroid molecule:

- Cortisol
- Androgens
- Oestrogens

Steroid molecule disrupted:

- Calcitriol (H derived from vit D3)

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 Synthesis of Polypeptide Hormones (Largest class of
polypeptide hormones in vertebrates)

ACTH,, Bradykinin, Calcitonin, FSH, Gastrin,

Glucagon, GH, Insulin, LH, Prolactin, Somatostatin
Many polypeptide hormones are produced and processed similar to
Insulin.

Similarities:
1. Secreted polypeptydes (insulin from pancreas)
2. Contains signal segmentation to give direction

to secretary granules  extracell

 Synthesis of Polypeptide Hormones (Largest class of
polypeptide hormones in vertebrates)

3. Synthesized from RNA as inactive precursors

(preprohormones)

4. Activated by proteolysis

5. One preprohormone may produce several peptides

by suitable proteolysis and processing

A 250 residue precursor peptide in pituitary gland may produce

the hormone Endorphin after a cascade of poteolytic cleavage.
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 Signal Transduction

The mechanism of message transfer

by hormones or neurotransmitters
can be classified as

a. Endocrine

b. Paracrine

c. Autocrine

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Signal tansduction is initiated when
hormone binds to receptor.

Location of receptor:

I. On plasma membrane

II. Intracellular

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I Hormones that bind to
Plasma Membrane Receptors

a. Polypeptides
- Insulin
- Glucagon

b. Catecholamines
- Epinephrine
- Norepinephrin

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“Message” of hormone is transmitted by
receptor for the formation of a “second
messenger” by a membrane protein.
Subsequently, second messenger interacts
with intracellular enzymes and other proteins.

The hormone acts as first messenger and this

mechanism is known as Signal Transduction.

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Basic Types of Signal Transduction

a. Receptor that is coupled to adenylate cyclase

The 2nd messenger produced is cyclic AMP

Ex. : Glucagon, Epinephrine

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b. Receptor kinase activity (Tyrosine kinase)
Ex.: Insulin

After insulin binding, receptor undergoes

autophosphorylation.
The phosphorylated receptor is now
activated to phosphorylate other cellular
proteins (enzymes and non enzymes)
to enhance further action

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c. Receptor that is coupled to the hydrolysis
of phosphatidyl inositol bisphosphate (PIP2),
a membrane phospholipid.
Second messenger produced are:
Diacylglycerol for protein phosphorylation
and Inositol triphosphate for increasing
intracellular Ca ions.

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Some hormones and neurotransmitters act

via receptors that are coupled to gated ion

channels (controlled by potential energy),

Ex.: Muscarinic acetylcholine

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Signal Transduction thru G Proteins
(GTP activated protein)
G proteins consist of 3 subunits (α, β, γ)

Some hormones, such as glucagon and

epinephrine, pass the message from
receptor via G proteins to other membrane
protein that produces second messenger.

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Two types of acetylcholine ;

a. Nicotinic acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter

in synapses.

b. Muscarinic acetylcholine is coupled to G

proteins and transfers its signal to
adenilyl cyclase or to control K+ channel.

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II Intracellular Receptors

First messenger has to be lipophylic

- Steroid hormones

- Thyroid hormones

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References:
Biochemistry.Denise R. Ferrier. Sixth ed. 2014
Harper’s Illustrated Biochemistry. Murray, Granner,
Rodwell. 27th ed. 2006
Biochemistry and Disease Kohn, Roth. 1996
Functional Metabolism: Regulation and Adaptation
Storey, K.B. 2004
Biochemistry: Garret,R.H., Grisham,C.M. Thomson
Learning, 2005