•

Surface parcel in its environment:

stable case
Stable Atmosphere Example:

Environmental lapse rate at 4°C per 1000 m.

(a) The unsaturated parcel’s temperature

decreases faster than the environment’s
temperature. Colder=denser. Wants to return
to original position - stable.
(b) As for the dry the parcel, the saturated
parcel’s temperature decreases faster than
the environment’s temperature. Colder
=denser. Wants to return to original position
- stable.
 Surface parcel in its environment:
unstable case
Unstable Atmosphere Example:

Environmental lapse rate now at 11°C per

1000 m.

(a) The unsaturated parcel’s temperature

decreases slower than the environment’s
temperature in this case. If parcel is warmer
than surroundings, it wants to keep rising
because it is also less dense - unstable.

(b) As for the dry parcel, the saturated

parcel’s temperature decreases slower than
the environment’s temperature in this case.
Since parcel is warmer than the environment
when it rises, it wants to keep rising -
unstable.
 Surface parcel in its environment:
conditionally unstable case
Conditionally unstable Atmosphere Example: a two step process
Environmental lapse rate now at 9°C
per 1000 m.
1) Moist parcel rises with the dry
adiabatic lapse rate (10°C/km) to
saturation at 1 km. At 1 km it is still
colder than its environment - stable
situation.
2) Above 1 km it will rise with the moist
adiabatic lapse rate (6°C/km). As it
rises and cools at a slower rate than the
environment (9°C/km), by 2 km it is
warmer than its environment - unstable
situation.

3) Above this level, the parcel will rise freely because it is lighter than the air around it. An
environment where dry parcels experience stable ascent and moist parcels experience unstable
ascent is called conditionally unstable.
 Surface parcel in its environment:
skew-T
Skew - T

lapse rate - how temperature varies with 5AM

height T
environmental lapse rate - variation of Td
temperature with height at a certain time
and place (T on graph)
dry adiabatic lapse rate - decrease in
temperature of dry air upon ascent,
~10°C/1km (green lines on skew-T)
moist adiabatic lapse rate - decrease in
temperature of saturated air upon ascent,
on average ~6°C/1km (cyan dashed lines -
the further left on the diagram, the less
water in the air, the closer the curve comes
to the dry adiabatic slope)

dry moist
lines of constant mixing ratio
lines of constant temperature (45° to horizontal)
 Skew-T Review - now include
moisture!
Reading the temperatures on a skew-T:
Td
T

Td=8°C T=25°C

Reading mixing ratio (moisture content) on a skew-T:

Td
T

lines of constant mixing ratio mixing ratio=7.5 g/kg

 What happens to rising air parcels in
Tucson?
Example 1: Tucson, 28 September 12 UTC (5 AM LT):
Parcel starts at 25°C near surface with
5AM an 8°C dew point (see last slide).
T
Parcel will rise along a dry adiabat as
Td long as its temperature remains below
its dew point, i.e. no condensation is
occurring.

Parcel is saturated when its dry adiabat

intersects with its constant mixing ratio
line (drawn from the dew point)

Parcel will rise along a moist adiabat

~2600 m once it is saturated.

Cloud base (lifting condensation

level) is the level at which the surface
air parcels become saturated. In this
7.5 g/kg 25°C example it is at about 2600 m.
 Stability of the Tucson Environment
Is this a stable or unstable environment?
T
5AM
Td

T=25°C
The parcel we are following does not appear to become warmer than its environment, although
as the sun rises this situation might change. However, because the environmental lapse rate is
between the dry and moist adiabatic lapse rate, this atmosphere is considered conditionally
unstable.
This is consistent with a lack of clouds with vertical extent hanging over Tucson yesterday. Note
that some mid-level clouds were observed, consistent with the environment’s saturation level
(dew point equals air temperature) at around 5600 m.
 What happens to rising air parcels in
Tropics?
Example 2: Tropics, 13 August 1997 03 UTC (6 PM LT):
Parcel starts at 28°C near surface
with 16 g/kg of water vapor.

Raise parcel along a dry adiabat

until it intersects with the constant
mixing ratio line.

Cloud base (lifting condensation

level) is at the intersection of the dry
adiabat and the constant mixing ratio
line, or about 750 m!

LCL
Is this sounding stable or unstable?

It is conditionally unstable overall,

but unstable near the surface.
28°C
16 g/kg
 Cloud Photo of Tropical Sounding

Towering cumulus,
Cumulus congestus cumulonimbus

14 hours later

13 August 1997 18:00 LT 14 August 1997 08:00 LT

Cloud base at
~750 mb Rain shaft from cumulonimbus
 Cloud Formation: Free Convection
Cloud Forms As the saturated air rises
Thermal rising to form a cloud: above the LCL, water vapor
from the parcels condense
onto CCN forming the liquid
water droplets that make up
Mature Column a cloud.

Lifting Condensation Level

Starting column

If energetic enough, the thermals will reach the

Warm air near surface lifting condensation level (LCL) for the surface
expands, becomes less air - the level at which surface air saturates.
dense than its Above this level, parcels rise with moist adiabatic
surroundings and rises lapse rate. Will rise above LCL freely if a
with dry adiabatic conditionally unstable environment exists.
lapse rate (thermals) warm air

Surface warming
Adopted from http://www.piercecollege.com/offices/weather/stability.html
 Cloud Formation: Orographic Uplift

T=-2°C, Td=-2°C
-4°C Windward (stable) Leeward
Altitude (m)

T=4°C, Td=4°C T=8°C, Td=0°C

4°C (neutral) (unstable)

T=10°C, Td=10°C T=18°C, Td=2°C

12°C (stable) (unstable) Rain shadow

T=20°C, Td=12°C T=28°C, Td=4°C

Fig. 5.12

Lifted air is warmer and drier when it returns to the surface. What happened to the water?
Water condensed and remained suspended in the air as cloud droplets or fell out as rain.
 Other ways to form a cloud?

Free Topography
Convection

Low-level Fronts
Convergence

Fig. 5.8