BIRTUD PAGPAPAHALAGA

Nagmula sa salitang Latin na Valore

Galing sa salitang Latin na virtus
(vir) na nangangahuluganang
“pagiging tao” pagiging matatag at
pagiging malakas
na nangangahulugang pagiging
malakas o matatag at pagiging
makabuluhan o pagkakaroon ng
saysay o kabuluhan

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 1

URI NG BIRTUD URI NG PAGPAPAHALAGA

1.INTELEKTWAL NA BIRTUD 1. Ganap na Papapahalagang

Moral (Absolute Moral Values).
2.MORAL NA BIRTUD
2. Ikalawa, Pagpapahalagang
Kultural na Panggawi (Cultural
Behavioral Values).

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 2

URI NG BIRTUD

INTELEKTWAL NA BIRTUD
Ang mga intelektwal na birtud ay may kinalaman sa
isip ng tao. Ito ay tinatawag na gawi ng kaalaman
(habit of knowledge). Sa buhay ng tao, naglalaan
tayo ng mahabang panahon sa pagpapayaman ng
ating isip. Kung kaya, mahalagang malaman natin
ang wastong pamamaraan sa pagsasagawa nito
upang hindi tayo magsayang ng pagod,

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 3

Moral na Birtud
Ang mga moral na birtud ay may kinalaman sa pag-uugali ng
tao. Ito ay ang mga gawi na nagpapabuti sa tao. Ito rin ay
ang mga gawi na nagtuturo sa atin na iayon ang ating ugali
sa tamang katuwiran. Ang lahat ng mga moral na birtud ay
may kaugnayan sa kilos-loob. May apat na uri ang moral na
birtud.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 4

Mga uri ng Pagpapahalaga

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 5

Ganap na Papapahalagang Moral (Absolute Moral
Values). Ito ay nagmumula sa labas ng tao. Ito ang
pangkalahatang katotohanan (universal truth) na
tinatanggap ng tao bilang mabuti at mahalaga. Ito ay ang
mga prinsipyong etikal (ethical principles) na kaniyang
pinagsisikapang makamit at mailapat sa pang-arawaraw na
buhay. Ito ay ang mga mithiin na tumatagal at nananatili;
ito ay katanggaptanggap at makabuluhan para sa lahat ng
tao anuman ang kaniyang lahi o relihiyon. Ito ang
nagbubuklod sa lahat ng tao sa Diyos.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 6

Pagpapahalagang Kultural na Panggawi (Cultural
Behavioral Values). Ito ay mga pagpapahalagang nagmula
sa loob ng tao. Ito ay maaaring pansariling pananaw ng tao
o kolektibong paniniwala ng isang pangkat kultural. Ang
layunin nito ay makamit ang mga dagliang pansarili o
pampangkat na tunguhin (immediate goals). Kasama rito
ang pansariling pananaw, opinyon, ugali at damdamin.
Halimbawa, kung lumaki ka sa Pilipinas kung saan may
konserbatibong kultura, tiyak na maninibago ka kung
maninirahan sa Europa. Dito ang mga tao ay labis na liberal.
Maaaring may mga paniniwala sila na katanggap-tanggap sa
kanilang lipunan ngunit hindi katanggap-tanggap sa atin.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 7

Hirarkiya ng pagpapahalaga
ayon kay Max Scheler

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 8

1. Pandamdam na mga Pagpapahalaga (Sensory
Values).

2. Pambuhay na Pagpapahalaga (Vital Values).

3. Mga Ispiritwal na Pagpapahalaga (Spiritual Values).

4. Banal na Pagpapahalaga (Holy Values).

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 9

Pandamdam na mga Pagpapahalaga (Sensory Values).

Itinuturing na nasa pinakamababang antas ng

pagpapahalaga, tumutukoy ito sa mga pagpapahalagang
nagdudulot ng kasiyahan sa pandamdam ng tao. Kasama
dito ang pagbibigay-halaga sa mga bagay na tumutugon sa
pangunahing pangangailangan ng tao tulad ng pagkain,
tubig, damit, tirahan at iba pang teknikal na mga
pagpapahalaga. Kasama rin sa mga pagpapahalagang ito
yaong mga bagay na maituturing lamang na rangya o luho
ng isang tao, katulad ng mamahaling alahas, magarang
sasakyan o mamahaling mga bag at sapatos na labis na
hinahangad ng ilang mga tao.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 10

Pambuhay na Pagpapahalaga (Vital Values).

Ito ay mga pagpapahalagang may kinalaman sa mabuting

kalagayan ng buhay (well-being). Halimbawa, mahalaga sa
tao ang makapagpahinga kung siya ay pagod dahil ito ang
makapagpapabuti sa kaniyang pakiramdam. Ang kumain ng
masustansiyang pagkain upang matiyak na siya ay malusog
at hindi magkakasakit. Mahalaga sa atin na may makausap
na taong mahalaga sa atin upang mabawasan ang ating
kalungkutan. Ang lahat ng nabanggit ay mga bagay na
pinahahalagahan ng tao upang masiguro niya ang kanyang
kaayusan at mabuting kalagayan.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 11

Mga Ispiritwal na Pagpapahalaga (Spiritual Values).

Maituturing na mas mataas ang pagpapahalaga nito kaysa

sa dalawang unang nabanggit. Ang pagpapahalagang ito ay
tumutukoy sa mga pagpapahalagang para sa kabutihan,
hindi ng sarili kundi ng mas nakararami. May tatlong uri ang
pagpapahalagang ito ayon sa aklat na Problems of a
Sociology of Knowledge na isinulat ni Max Scheler:

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 12

Banal na Pagpapahalaga (Holy Values).

Ito ang pinakamataas sa lahat ng antas ng mga

pagpapahalaga. Tumutukoy ito sa mga pagpapahalagang
kailangan sa pagkamit ng tao ng kaniyang kaganapan upang
maging handa sa pagharap sa Diyos. Ang pagkilos tungo sa
kabanalan ang katuparan ng kaganapan hindi lamang ng
materyal na kalikasan ng tao kundi maging ng kaniyang
ispiritwal na kalikasan.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 13

Panlabas na Salik sa
Paghubog ng mga
Pagpapahalaga

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1.Pamilya at Paraan ng Pag-aaruga sa Anak

2.Guro at Tagapagturo ng Relihiyon

3.Mga Kapwa Kabataan (Peers)

4. Pamana ng Kultura (Cultural Heritage) at

Impluwensiya ng Kapaligiran o Lipunan

5.Katayuang Panlipunan-Pangkabuhayan (Socio-

Economic Background)

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 15

1. Pamilya at Paraan ng Pag-aaruga sa Anak

Ang pamilya ay hindi lamang itinuturing na pundasyon ng lipunan kundi

pundasyon ng pagkatao ng isang indibiduwal. Ang magulang ang siyang
binibigyan ng karapatan na itayo ang istruktura ng pag-uugali at
pagpapahalaga ng kanilang mga anak. Hindi lang karapatan bagkus
tungkulin at pananagutan. Kaya’t sila ang nagsilbing guro sa ating tahanan,
sila ang una nating nasilayan sa pagdating natin sa mundo at ang mga
unang nagturo sa atin ng pagmamahal dahil sa kanila halimbawa. Sa kanila
natin unang naramdaman na tayo ay mahalaga; sa kanila rin natin unang
natutuhan na magpahalaga sa ating sarili sa ating kapwa. Sa kanila natin
natutuhan ang pagbibigay at pagbabahagi, ang kahalagahan ng
pagpapasalamat at ng dignidad, ng paggalang at pagmamahal. Tungkulin
din nilang ituro ang mga prinsipyong moral sa pamamagitan ng kanilang
pagsasabuhay sa mga ito sa pang-araw-araw na buhay.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 16

2. Guro at Tagapagturo ng Relihiyon
Katulad ng mga magulang sa tahanan, malaki rin ang bahaging
ginagampanan ng guro sa paghubog ng mga pagpapahalaga. Siya
ang makatutulong sa isang bata upang mas mapalawak ang
kaniyang isip at maunawaan ang kaniyang kakayahang makakalap
ng karunungan, upang magamit ito para lamang sa katotohanan at
kabutihan. Sa paaralan natututuhan ang pagkakaroon ng
kahandaan sa pagharap sa mga sitwasyon at pagsasagawa ng mga
pasiya gamit ang kaalaman sa tama at mali. Dito matututuhan ang
pagkakaroon ng katatagan na mapanatili ang moral na prinsipyo sa
gitna ng mga pagsubok at nagtutunggaliang mga pagpapahalaga at
impluwensiya ng kapaligiran. Pangmatagalan ang impluwensiysa sa
isang bata na mahalin ang katotohanan at isabuhay ang mga
pagpapahalaga ng isang gurong nagtuturo at nagsasabuhay ng
magandang halimbawa.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 17

3. Mga Kapwa Kabataan (Peers)

Sa mga panahong wala sa paggabay ng mga magulang at

guro ang isang bata, ang kaniyang kahalubilo ay ang
kaniyang kapwa kabataan. Sa huling yugto ng pagiging bata
at sa maagang yugto ng kaniyang kabataan, isa sa may
malakas na impluwensiya sa isang bata ay ang kaniyang
kapwa kabataan.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 18

4. Pamana ng Kultura (Cultural Heritage) at Impluwensiya
ng Kapaligiran o Lipunan
Habang lumalawak ang mundong ginagalawan ng isang kabataan,
lumalawak din ang maaring makaimpluwensya sa paghubog ng
kaniyang mga pagpapahalaga. Sa dami ng iba’t ibang pagpapahalagang
maaaring makita mula sa iyong lipunang ginagalawan, nararapat na
taglay mo ang kahandaan upang pumili ng karapat-dapat na
pagpapahalagang tutularan at isasabuhay. Tanggapin natin ang
katotohanan na dahil sa pagbabagong dulot ng modernong panahon sa
pamumuhay sa lipunan, may ilan na nakakalimutan ang mga moral na
prinsipyo kapalit ng pagunlad. Gayundin, sa pamumuhay sa ganitong
uri ng kapaligiran ay nangangailangan ng katatagan sa pagkapit sa
pansariling moral na pamantayan. Kailangang isaisip na ang tunay na
kahalagahan ng pamana ng kultura ay ang pagkakaroon ng mataas na
antas ng panlipunang pagbabago na nakamit dahil sa paghubog ng
kaisipan upang humanap ng karunungan at katotohanan at sa
pagsasanay ng kilos-loob na piliin ang mabuti, isabuhay ang birtud at
iangat ang Batas Moral.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 19

5. Katayuang Panlipunan-Pangkabuhayan (Socio-
Economic Background)

Isa sa pangunahing karapatan ng tao ay ang matugunan ang

kaniyang mga pangunahing pangangailangan. Kailangan
niya ng sapat na nutrisyon, damit, matitirahan, gamot,
pahinga, at iba pa. May malaking kaugnayan ang pagtugon
sa mga pangangailangang ito sa paghubog ng
pagpapahalaga ng isang bata. Subali’t ayon kay Covey, may
mga taong tinitingan ang mundo sa pamamagitan ng lente
ng materyal na bagay. Ibig sabihin ang halaga ng tao ay
nasusukat sa material na bagay na kaniyang nakamit sa
buhay.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 20

6. Media

Sa kasalukuyang panahon, isa sa mga may pinakamalakas

na impluwensiya sa isang kabataan ay ang media. Sa
lungsod man ito o maliliit na mga bayan ng bansa, pilit na
inaabot ng modernisasyon at ng impormasyong dala ng
media. Hindi natin maisasantabi ang magandang dulot nito
para sa tao, sa mabilis na uri ng buhay, mahalagang ang tao
ay nakaaalam. Ngunit sa kabilang bahagi ng kagandahan
nito ay ang panganib na makaimpluwensiya sa isang bata
lalo na yaong mga iresponsableng naipahahayag ng media

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 21

 What is Psychology?
Psychology is the scientific study of mental functions and behavior including:
perception, cognition, behavior, emotion, personality, and interpersonal relationships.

The major theories of learning have been classified into three groups:

1. Behaviorist theories:
• Focuses on stimulus response and reinforcers;
• Studies conditioning, modifying, or shaping behavior through reinforcement and
rewards

2. Cognitive theories:
• Focuses information processing in relation to the total environment
• Studies developmental stages, understanding, multiple forms of intelligence, problem
solving, critical thinking, and creativity.

3. Phenomenological and Humanistic theories:

• Focuses on the whole child, their social, psychological, and cognitive development.
• Studies focus on human needs, attitudes, feelings and self-awareness.

22
 Do the major theories agree?
Psychology theories provide insight into understanding
the teaching and learning process:
• What is learning?
• Why do learners respond as they do to teachers efforts?
• What impact does the school and culture have on students
learning?

Psychology theories provide principles and direction for

curriculum developer:
• How should curriculum be organized to enhance learning?
• What is the optimal level of student participation in learning the
curriculums various contents?

23
 Behaviorism

Key Players:
1.Thorndike – Connectionism
2.Pavlov (and Watson) – Classical Conditioning
3.Skinner – Operant Conditioning
4.Bandura – Observable Learning and Modeling
5.Gagné – Hierarchical Learning

24
 Edward Thorndike
(1874 – 1949)
Father of modern educational psychology &
founder of behavioral psychology
• Started his research with animals using
stimulus-response (classic conditioning) and
developed the idea of Connectionism.
• 1928-Thordike conducted his first major study
with adults.
Connectionism
• Defined learning as a connection or
association of an increasing number of habits.
(More complicated associations means higher
levels of understanding.) "Photo of Edward Thorndike."
[Online image] 1 February 2009.
<http://http://faculty.frostburg.edu/mb

• Three Laws of Learning

radley/psyography/thorndike.html>

25
 Three Laws of Learning
1. Law of Readiness
• Often misinterpreted as educational readiness
• Deals with attitudes and focus. “Why should I do this?”
• If nervous system is ready, conduction is satisfying and lack of
conduction is annoying.

2. Law of Exercise
• Strength of connections is proportional to frequency, duration,
and intensity of its occurrence.
• Justifies drill, repetition and review.
• Seen today in behavior modification and basic skill instruction.

3. Law of Effect
• Responses that cause satisfaction strengthen connections and
discomfort weakens connections.
• Justifies use of rewards and punishments, especially Skinner’s
operant model.

26
 Thorndike’s Influence
• Thorndike and other followers believed that
rote memorization does not necessarily
strengthen connections.
• There has to be some sort of meaning associated with it
in order to be transferred to other situations.

• Thorndike broke the traditional thinking

about hierarchy of subject matter.
• One subject was no more important to meaningful
learning than another.
• Until then, math and science were seen as more
important to teaching structure.

27
 Ivan Pavlov
(1849 – 1936)
• Pavlov was the first to demonstrate
Classical Conditioning.
• He is best known for his experiment with
salivating dogs.
• Classical Conditioning
• Eliciting an unconditioned response by
using previously neutral stimuli.
• Unconditioned stimuli create reflexes that
are not “learned,” but are instinctual.
• Neutral and unconditioned stimuli are "Pavlov's Drooling Dogs." [Online
introduced at the same time. Unconditioned image] 1 February 2009.
<http://http://nobelprize.org/educ
stimuli are gradually removed, and the ational_games/medicine/pavlov/re
admore.html>
neutral stimuli elicit the same reflex.

28
 Pavlov’s Dogs
• Pavlov’s experiment with salivating dogs best
demonstrated the principle of Classical Conditioning.

• Dogs were trained to salivate at the sound of a bell.

• Dogs naturally salivated with food. (Unconditioned response)
• A bell (neutral stimuli) was rung every time the dogs were fed
over a period of time creating the association/connection of the
bell with food.
• After time, the dogs salivated at the sound of the bell alone.

• Pavlov’s Dogs Game

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 29

 James Watson
• Watson took Pavlov’s findings to another level.

• Emphasized that learning was observable or

measurable, not cognitive.

• Believed the key to learning was in conditioning a

child from an early age based on Pavlov’s methods.

• Nurture vs. Nature

• Watson’s theories strengthened the argument for the influence
of experiences as opposed to genetics.

vs.

30
 B. F. Skinner
(1904 – 1990)
• B.F. Skinner was one of the most
influential American psychologists.
• He began his research with rats at
Harvard and pigeons during WWII.
• His work led to the development of the
Theory of Operant Conditioning.
• The idea that behavior is determined or
influenced by its consequence.
• Respondent vs. Operant behavior Joyce Dopkeen-New York Times.
"B.F. Skinner." [Online image] 1
• Respondent behavior is the elicited February 2009.
<http://http://media-
response tied to a definite stimulus. 2.web.britannica.com/eb-
media/92/110192-004-
AC182B61.jpg>.
• Operant behavior is the emitted response
seemingly unrelated to any specific stimuli.

31
 Operant Conditioning
• Types of reinforcers (stimuli)
• Primary – stimuli fulfilling basic human drives such as food and water.
• Secondary – personally important, such as approval of friends or
teachers, winning money, awards, or recognition.
• Secondary reinforcers can become primary. Due to the wide range of
secondary reinforcers, Skinner referred to them as generalized.

• Operant behavior will “extinguish” without reinforcement.

• Positive reinforcer – presenting a reinforcing stimulus.
• Negative reinforcement – removing/withdrawing a stimulus or
reinforcer but it is not punishment.
• Punishment – presenting harmful stimuli (rejected by Skinner because
he felt it interfered with learning)
• “Reinforcers always strengthen behavior.” “Punishment is used to
suppress behavior.”
(B.F. Skinner, “A Brief Survey of Operant Behavior” www.bfskinner.org)

32
 Operant Conditioning
• Desired operant behaviors must be reinforced in a timely
manner. Delay of reinforcement hinders performance.

• By selecting which behavior to reinforce, we can direct

the learning process in the classroom.

• Learners can acquire new operants.

• As behavior is shaped, new and more complex concepts can be
introduced and desired behavior again reinforced.

“Education is what survives

when what has been
learned has been forgotten”
B.F. Skinner

"Skinner Box." [Online image] 1 February 2009.

<http://http://www.simplypsychology.pwp.blueyonde
r.co.uk/skinner%20box.jpg>.

33
 Albert Bandura
• Bandura contributed to the understanding of learning
through observation and modeling.
• He showed that aggressive behavior can be learned from
watching adults fighting, violent cartoons or even violent
video games. Passive behavior can also be learned from
watching adults with subdued
• Repeated demonstration and modeling is used by coaches
in various sports, military endeavors, and is also used in
the classroom setting to model and practice desired
behaviors.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 34

 Robert Gagné
(1916 – 2002)
• Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning notes the
transition from behaviorism to cognitive
psychology.
• The Hierarchy of Learning is an
arrangement of 8 behaviors ranging from
simple to complex.
• The first 5 behaviors are Behaviorist, the next 2
are both behaviorist and cognitive and the last
(highest form) is cognitive. "Photo of Robert Gagne."
[Online image] 1 February 2009.
• The hierarchy suggests a “bottom-up” approach <http://http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Ar
ticles/gagnesevents/index.htm>.
to learning where general principles/concepts
must be learned before advanced learning can
take place.

• He also describes 5 observable and

measurable learning outcomes

35
Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning
Behavioral
1. Signal Learning:
Classical Conditioning - Response to a signal

Behavioral
2. Stimulus-Response:
Operant Conditioning – Response to given stimulus

3. Motor Chains: Behavioral

Linking two or more stimulus response connections to

form a more complex skill

Behavioral
4. Verbal Association:
Linking two or more words or ideas

36
 Gagné’s Hierarchy of Learning (Cont.)
Behavioral
5. Multiple Discriminations:
Responding in different ways to different items in a set

Behavioral - Cognitive
6. Concepts:
reacting to stimuli in an abstract way

Behavioral - Cognitive
7. Rules:
Chaining two or more stimulus situations or concepts

8. Problem Solving Cognitive – higher order

Combining known rules/principles into new situations

to solve a problem

37
 Robert Gagné (Cont.)
• Five Learning Outcomes (observable and measurable)
1. Intellectual Skills
• “knowing how” to organize and use verbal and mathematical symbols,
concepts and rules to solve a problem.
2. Information
• “knowing what” – knowledge and facts
3. Cognitive Strategies
• “learning strategies” needed to process information
4. Motor skills
• Ability to coordinate movements
5. Attitudes.
• Feelings and emotions developed from positive and negative experiences.

• Mental operations needed for each outcome differ.

• Gagné’s Instructional Events lead into cognitive psychology.

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 38

Cognitive Psychology

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 39

 Background
Replaced behaviorism as dominant philosophy in
1960’s
1. Criticisms of Behaviorism:
Did not explain:
• language learning
• why people respond differently to the same stimulus
• reinforcement can reduce motivation
*Have you observed this effect?

2. Popularity of newly discovered theories of Piaget

and Vygotsky in the 50’s and 60’s

40
 Beginning Mental Model

Schools of Thought

Cognitive
Behaviorism
Psychology

Skinner, Pavlov Piaget, Vygotsky

41
 Working Mental Model
Bandura- bridge/transition

learning is social by observation, modeling, imitation

Environment Behavior

Spectrum
Behaviorism Cognitive Psychology
Pavlov Skinner Bandura Vygotsky Piaget

42
 Basic Characteristics

• Focus on how individuals

process information

• Emphasis on memory
(storage, retrieval, types)

Chunking can aide

working memory,
which is limited

Successful learners
transfer information to
long term memory -
“infinite” in capacity
http://www.personal.psu.edu/users/m/r/mrs331/cognitivism.htm

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 43

 Behaviorism vs. Cognitive
Attribute Behaviorism Cognitive
Theory

Behaviors The end in Evidence

themselves- the pointing to brain
only observable activity- learning
truth

Activation of Irrelevant Essential

Prior
Knowledge

Teachers role Provide stimulus Prepare

environment

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 44

 Maria Montessori
(1870 - 1952)
Rationale for including her:

• Authors do not place her with

progressive child- centered approaches-
lack of “free play” vs. freedom within
structure

• Opposed behaviorist focus on only

“doing” but focused also on looking and
listening

• Focus on how sensory stimulation from

the environment shapes thinking

45
 Montessori’s Legacy
What she did:
• Psychiatric Clinic at the University of Rome- taught “difficult”
children to read at a normal level
• 1906 asked to start a progressive school for slum children of
Italy- Casa dei Bambini (Children’s House)

Why she was important:

•Pioneer of child advocacy- for

exceptional children, low SES children

*Discuss Tyler & Taba’s Traditional vs.

Progressive study (1920- 30%HS)

*Modern Irony- expense of

Montessori school
46
 Jean Piaget
1896 - 1980
• Swiss psychologist (Pestalozzi)
• America noticed in the 50’s and 60’s
• Text reminds us that his theories are not fact,
and should be taken as “suggestive”
• Influenced: Tyler, Taba, Bruner, Kohlburg
•Tyler- various assessment
and MANY MORE!!!
•Taba-Too many facts, not enough
connections

•Bruner-stages like Piaget, but are

revisited to develop in complexity

•Kohlburg- moral stages

47
 Piaget- Cognitive development stages
Formal
*How would you describe operations
abstract reasoning? begins
@ 11-15
abstract thinker
Concrete operations
(ages 7 to 11)
begins to think abstractly,
needs physical, concrete examples

Preoperational stage (ages 2 to 4)

Needs concrete interactions (no abstract)
use of symbols (pictures, words) to communicate

Sensorimotor stage (Birth to 2 years old)

learning by movement and sensory exploration

5305 Curriculum Design, Implementation and Evaluation 48

 Piaget
• Like Gagne , stages described as hierarchal
• Learning involves:
• assimilation (filing info
in an existing schema)
• accommodation (changing
schemata to fit new info)
Schema theory explains:
• importance of accessing prior knowledge
• why cognitive dissonance strategies work
49
 Lev Vygotsky
(1896-1934)
• Russian psychologist
• The West published in 1962
• theory of sociocultural development
• Culture requires skilled tool use (language, art,
counting systems)
• The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): distance
between a student’s performance with help and
performance independently.
• learning occurred in this zone

*Q-Is the idea of scaffolding one of building on existing

knowledge or providing assistance in the ZPD?

50
 Piaget vs. Vygotsky
Piaget Vygotsky

Emphasis Discrete Modeling and

hierarchal stages guided learning
of the individual
Which comes development social learning
first: social
learning
(chicken) or
development
(egg)?
* Discuss examples: Toilet
learning, attention span

51
 Constructivism
• Some include this as a separate theory,
other include it inside of cognitive theories

What is learning?
• Individual must construct own knowledge- make
meaning
• Learner must reshape words- mimicking is not
enough.
• Learners must make knowledge personally
relevant

52
 Constructivism
• How does learning take place?
• New information is linked to prior knowledge, so mental
representations are subjective for each learner
• Learning is optimal when there is awareness of the process-
metacognition

“A common misunderstanding regarding constructivism is that

instructors should never tell students anything directly but, instead,
should always allow them to construct knowledge for themselves.
This is actually confusing a theory of pedagogy (teaching) with a
theory of knowing. Constructivism assumes that all knowledge is
constructed from the learner’s previous knowledge, regardless of how
one is taught. Thus, even listening to a lecture involves active
attempts to construct new knowledge.”

Learning Theories Knowledgebase (2009, January). Constructivism at Learning-Theories.com. Retrieved January 24th, 2009 from
http://www.learning-theories.com/constructivism.html

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