BLOOD

AND
BLOOD STAINS
The test for the identification of blood is
employed as an important part of the
routine investigation in many cases of
violent death.
The specimen usually submitted is fresh
blood or fluid blood, dried blood and
clotted blood. Very often it is brought to the
laboratory as dried blood or brown stain on
weapons, clothing or other objects.
 IMPORTANCE OF THE STUDY OF BLOOD
1. As circumstantial or corroborative evidence
against or in favor of the perpetrator of the crime.
2. In case of disputed parentage
3. Determination of the cause of death and the
length of time the victim survived the attack.
4. Determination of the direction of escape of the
victims or the assailant
5. Determination of the origin of the flow of blood
6. Determination of the approximate time the crime
was committed
 CASES WHERE BLOOD CAN BE USED AS
EVIDENCE
1. Stabbing
2. Mauling
3. Hit and run
4. Rape
5. Paternity cases
6. Robbery/ burglary
 BLOOD
• Has been called the circulating tissue of the
body
• Made up of formed elements suspended in a
liquid called plasma
• Highly complex mixtures of cells, enzymes,
proteins and inorganic substances
• About 6 quarts of blood in a average size man.
• It is opaque
• slightly alkaline(normal pH is 7.35-7.45)
 COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
1. 35% formed elements
a) Red blood cells or erythrocytes- contains
hemoglobin and carries oxygen to various tissue in
the body.
b) White blood cells or leukocytes- defends the body
from invading microorganism and help fight infection
c) Blood platelets or thrombocytes- produced by the
bone marrow and responsible for proper clotting of
blood.
 COMPOSITION OF BLOOD
2. 65% plasma – fluid portion of the blood where cells
are suspended.
a) 90% water
b) 10% solid – largely protein in nature and consists of
the following:
albumen – the most abundant protein of the blood
globulins – important role in the immune
mechanism of the body.
fibrinogen – soluble precursors of fibrin which
forms blood clot.
PROBLEMS IN THE STUDY OF BLOOD

1. Where blood has to be searched?

2. Collection, preservation and
transportation of specimen suspected to
contain blood.
3. Does the stain contain blood or another
substance
 Collection of Blood Stain

In collecting blood stain, use a cotton

swab wet with Normal Saline Solution
(NSS), rub until you absorb all blood in one
place. Use different swab for different
blood stain in different places. Do not
destroy furniture or bring the whole linen
where the blood stain is found.
 Collection of Blood Stain

In cases involving blood, you need a

standard sample from the victim (in case it
is a cadaver) and also from the suspect.
Blood stain is a needed sample not
decomposed blood. Do not let your
sample to decomposed
 Chronological test for blood
1. Preliminary test – determine whether the stain
contains blood or another substance.
2. Confirmatory test – determines whether
bloodstain really contains blood.
3. Precipitin test – determines whether the stain is
human or animal in origin, if not human, the
specific animal family from which it is originated.
4. Blood grouping test – determined the blood
group if stain is human blood
 Preliminary test for blood
1. Benzidine test
• Very sensitive test that can be applied to minute stain
• very delicate test and detect blood when present in a
dilution of 1:300,000 parts.
• It use was discontinued because it was known to be
carcinogenic
• Can be use to very old stain or decomposed stain
with all sorts of contamination.
Positive result: intense blue color produced immediately
-
 Preliminary test for blood
2. Guaiacum test
• Fairly delicate test showing presence of blood in
a solution of 1;50,000 dilution.
• May not react to very old stain
• Limitation of the test: reacts with saliva, pus,
bile, milk, rust, iron, salt, cheese, potatoes,
perspiration and other oxidizing substances.
Positive result: beautiful blue color that appears
immediately
 Preliminary test for blood
3. Phenolpthalein test(Kustle-Meyer test)
• Alternative test to benzidine test.
• Can detect blood in a dilution of
1:80,000,000 parts.
• Positive result is highly indicative of blood
• The test also give positive results for copper
salts, potatoes and horseradish.
Positive result: rose color develops/deep pink
 Preliminary test for blood
4. Leucomalachite Green test
• Recommended by Adler in 1904
• Not as sensitive as the Benzidine test.
Positive Result: malachite green or bluish green
5. Luminol test – important presumptive identification
for blood
• Reaction of luminal with blood results in the
production of light rather than color.
• Extremely sensitive test(diluted up to 10,000 times
Positive result: luminescence or emission of light
 Confirmatory test for blood
• The actual proof that a stain is blood is establishing
the presence of the characteristic pigment,
hemoglobin or one of its derivatives
• Hemoglobin is the red coloring matter of the RBC
of the blood
• The 3 confirmatory test for blood
1. Microscopic test
2. Microchemical test or microcrystalline test
3. Spectroscopic test
 Confirmatory test for blood
1. Microscopic test
• Useful in the demonstration and mensuration of blood cells
• Use to differentiate between mammalian, avian, piscine
and reptilian blood.
2. Microchemical test and Microcrystalline test
• Identification of blood can be made more specific if this
test is applied or performed.
A. Teicmann Haemin test
B. Acetone-Haemin test
C. Haemochromogen crystal test or Takayama test
Microchemical test and Microcrystalline test

Principle of the Test: Test depends on the

addition of the specific chemicals to the
blood so that characteristics crystals with
hemoglobin will be formed.
A. Teicmann Haemin test or Teicmann Test or
Haemin Crystal test
Positive Result: dark brown rhombic crystals
arranged singly or in cluster
Microchemical test and Microcrystalline test
B. Acetone-Haemin test
Positive result: small dark, diachromic circular
crystals
C. Haemochromogen crystal test or Takayama
test
A delicate test for the presence of
hemoglobin.
Positive Result: large rhombic crystals of a
salmon pink color arranged in cluster.
 Confirmatory test for blood
3. Spectroscope test
• Most delicate and reliable test for the
determination of the presence of blood in
both old and recent stains
• Perform using an optical instrument called
spectroscope
 Precipitin test for blood
• Standard test used to determine whether the
stain blood is human or animal in origin
• Very sensitive and requires only a small amount
• Stain dried as long as 10-15 years still give positive
result
• Limitations: precipitin reacts not only with blood
proteins but also with other body proteins in
saliva, semen,, mucus and other body fluids.
 Blood Grouping of Fresh Blood
If the stain is human blood, did it come from the
victim, the accused or from other persons. The
origin of the blood or blood stain can be
determined by the identification of the blood
groups to which it belongs? This identification is
carried out on both fresh blood and blood stains.
Human blood of all races can be divided into
definite groups.
 A-B-O SYSTEM
• In blood grouping of fresh blood A-B-O system
is used.
• It was Landsteiner in 1900, who discovered
the four blood groups namely group A, B, O
and AB
• He named the 4 groups based on the basis of
the agglutinogen or antigen contents of the
RBC
 A-B-O SYSTEM
• Agglutinogens or Antigens are characteristic
chemical structures or principles that are
founds on the surface of the RBC which
stimulates the production of agglutinins.
• There are 2 agglutinogens classified as
Agglutinogen A and agglutinogen B.
 A-B-O SYSTEM
• On the other hand serum contains proteins or
principles known as antibodies or agglutinins,
which cause agglutination or clumping of RBC
• They are anti-toxin substances within the
body, which reacts when confronted with a
specific antigens to protect the system.
• There are 2 agglutinins classified as anti-A and
anti-B
 What are blood types?
Blood Types
There are 3 alleles or genes for blood AA or AO = Type A
type: A, B, & O. Since we have 2 genes, BB or BO = Type B
there are 6 possible combinations. OO = Type O
AB = Type AB

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/units/basics/blood/types.cfm
How common is your blood type?
Percentage Distribution of Blood type World wide

46.1%

38.8%

11.1%

3.9%
How common is your blood type?
Percentage Distribution of Blood type in the Philippines

43.3%

26.3%

24.7%

5.7%
 Blood Transfusions
A blood transfusion is a procedure in which blood is given to a patient through an
intravenous (IV) line in one of the blood vessels. Blood transfusions are done to replace
blood lost during surgery or a serious injury. A transfusion also may be done if a person’s
body can't make blood properly because of an illness.

Who can give you blood? Universal Donor

People with TYPE O blood are called

Universal Donors, because they can give
blood to any blood type.

People with TYPE AB blood are called

Universal Recipients, because they can
receive any blood type.

Rh +  Can receive + or -
Rh -  Can only receive -
Universal Recipient
 Rh Factors
• Scientists sometimes study Rhesus monkeys
to learn more about the human anatomy
because there are certain similarities between
the two species. While studying Rhesus
monkeys, a certain blood protein was
discovered. This protein is also present in the
blood of some people. Other people, however,
do not have the protein.
• The presence of the protein, or lack of it, is
referred to as the Rh (for Rhesus) factor. A+ A-
• If your blood does contain the protein, your
blood is said to be Rh positive (Rh+). If your B+ B-
blood does not contain the protein, your blood AB+ AB-
is said to be Rh negative (Rh-).
O+ O-
http://www.fi.edu/biosci/blood/rh.html
 Beinstein’s Theory of Blood Group
Inheritance
• Beinstein’s theory postulates the presence of three
allelic genes A, B and O, according to him the blood
group of any individual is determined by
combination of A,B and O in a particular pair of
chromosomes
• One gene from the father and the other from the
mother. Genes A and B are dominant over gene O. A
and B determines the presence of the corresponding
agglutinogens, while O determines their absence.
Ten Different Matings possible between the 4
blood groups.
PARENTS POSSIBLE TYPE OF NOT POSSIBLE
CHILDREN
• OxO O A,B,AB
• AxO A,O B, AB
• AxA A,O B, AB
• BxO B,O A, AB
• BxB B,O A, AB
• AxB O,A,B,AB NONE
• AB x O A,B O, AB
• AB x A A,B,AB O
• AB x B A,B,AB O
• AB x AB A,B,AB O