Chapter 7

Temperature and He
at

1
 Types of Matter
• Matter may exist in the solid, liquid or gaseou
s states
• Solids are composed of atoms held together b
y attractive or cohesive forces.
• If the cohesive forces are strong, the atoms ar
e tightly bound to one another and the matter
is in the solid state.
• If the cohesive forces are weak and the atoms
have considerable movement with respect to
each other, the matter is in the liquid or gase
ous state.
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 2
 Temperature of an Object
• In a qualitative manner, we can describ
e the temperature of an object as that w
hich determines the sensation of warmt
h or coldness felt from contact with it
• Temperature greatly affects the average
position of the particles (atoms or mole
cules) with respect to each other and so
determines whether they are going to b
e solid, liquid or gas
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 3
 Temperature and Kinetic Ene
rgy
• If water is cooled in the fridge it turns to ice beca
use the kinetic energy of the water molecules bec
omes less than the cohesive bond energy and so
water turns to a solid (ice).
• If on the other hand we "heat up" the water, which
means we make the kinetic energy much greater t
han the cohesive energy, then water turns to gas
or water vapour.

• Many solid properties depend on:

(i) Temperature
(ii) Interatomic bonds
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 4
Temperature dependence on Me
chanical Properties
• Liquid nitrogen boils at a tempe
rature of -196 ºC.
• If a fresh rose is dunked into th
e liquid nitrogen and then remo
ved, it can be smashed so that i
t will shatter like glass.
• That is, it's mechanical properti
es are temperature dependent.
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 5
 Temperature and Heat

We'll examine later the concept of tempe

rature and heat in more detail but for t
he moment, in a nutshell:
(1) Temperature is related to the averag
e kinetic energy of the particles (atoms
or molecules).
(2) Heat is the amount of energy transf
erred to a system of particles

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 6

 Thermal Expansion
• When a material is heated or cooled, it chang
es its dimensions. Generally, it expands when
heated and contracts when cooled although t
here can be exceptions to this rule

• Over small temperature ranges, the line

ar nature of thermal expansion leads to
expansion relationships for length, area
, and volume in terms of the linear expa
nsion coefficient          
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 Expansion Concepts

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 Linear Expansion
The relationship governin
g the linear expansion o
f a long thin rod can be
reasoned out as follows:

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 Area Expansion
Over small temperatur
e ranges, the
thermal area expans
ion
can be described b
y the coefficient of
linear expansion. If t
he linear expansion
is put in the form
βΞ2α is area coefficient expansion

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 10

 Volume Expansion
Over small temperature ra
nges, the
thermal volume expansi
on
is described by the coe
fficient of
linear expansion.

γΞ3α is volume coefficient expansion

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 11

 Linear Coefficient Expansion
Substance     
 (10-6/oC)
Ice (at 0 °C) 51
Lead 29
Aluminium 23
Brass 19
Copper 17
Steel 11
Glass (ordinary) 9
Glass (Pyrex) 3.2
Invar 0.7
Fused quartz 0.5

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 12

 Bimetallic Strips
Bonding two metals with dissimilar thermal expansion coefficients
can produce useful devices for detecting and measuring
temperature changes. A typical pair is brass and steel with typical
expansion coefficients of 19 and 13 parts per million per degree
Celsius respectively

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 13

Example #4: volume expansio
n
• A glass of volume 200 cm3 is filled to th
e rim with mercury. How much the mer
cury will overflow the vessel if we raise
the temperature by 30oC?
– γHg= 0.18x10-3/oC
– γglass= 3x11x10-6/oC

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 14

Home Work #2: area expansio
n
• The diagram shows a rectangular met
al plate with a square cut off from one
corner. When the plate is heated, whic
h of the following is observed (BP > C)?
a
S

a. QR > PQ C
a
Q R
b. QR < PQ
c. QR remains equal to PQ
d. QR/PQ = B/C B
e. The area PQRS remains constant

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 15

 Heat
• Heat may be defined as energy (measured in Joule) in transit from a hi
gh temperature object to a lower temperature object.
• An object does not possess "heat"; the appropriate term for the micros
copic energy in an object is internal energy.
• The internal energy may be increased by transferring energy to the obj
ect from a higher temperature (hotter) object - this is properly called he
ating.

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 16

 Heat Transfer
• The transfer of heat is normally from a high
temperature object to a lower temperature object.
• Heat transfer changes the internal energy of both sy
stems involved according to the
First Law of Thermodynamics.

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 Heat Conduction
• If two objects at different temperatures are pl
aced in contact, heat will flow from the higher
to the lower temperature object. This is called
Conduction.

• This is sometimes not obvious: Like when yo

u shake hands with a person with cold hands.
The conclusion that many people make is tha
t cold has travelled from that person to you. It
is only heat that travels. The coldness that yo
u feel is simply the heat leaving your hand.
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 18
 Example phenomenon
• Put a block of wood and a bowl of water in the fridge.
Allow the water to freeze. Then take both of them out
and feel them. Which feels "colder"? Most will say th
e ice. So which has the lowest temperature. If you sa
y the ice, then you are wrong!
– They both have the same temperature. It feels colder becaus
e the ice conducts heat faster than wood. What you feel as "c
older" simply means there is more heat leaving your hand ev
ery second than when touching the wood.

• So our concept of hot or cold does not just depend o

n temperature but also on how fast heat travels in dif
ferent materials.

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 So how fast does heat travel?
• Heat travels at different rates in different materials.
The quantity of heat transferred per unit time (in oth
er words the rate of heat transfer) is given by:
                                        
• where k is the thermal conductivity, A is the cross-se
ctional area, L is the length of the object, TH is the hi
gher temperature at one end of the solid, Tc is the lo
wer temperature at the other end.

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 Example #1
• An aluminium pot contains water that is kept steadil
y boiling (100 ºC). The bottom surface of the pot, w
hich is 12 mm thick and 1.5x104 mm2 in area, is mai
ntained at a temperature of  by an electric heating
unit.
• Find the rate at which heat is transferred through th
e bottom surface. Compare this with a copper based
pot. The thermal conductivities for aluminium and c
opper are kAl = 235 Wm-1K-1 and kCu = 401 Wm-1K-1 r
espectively.

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 21

 Solution #1
• For the aluminium base:
• TH = 102 ºC, TC = 100 ºC, L=12 mm = 0.012 m, k = kAl = 235
Wm-1K-1
Base area = A =  = 0.015 m2.
Substituting these into the above equation:
 
• Js-1 (or Watts)
•  
• For the copper base k = kCu = 401 Wm-1K-1. So the rate of heat
conduction across the base is
 
•     Js-1 (or Watts)

 
• So the copper based pot transfers 1.7 times more energy ever
y second compared with the aluminium pot.

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 22

Conduction across composite ma
terials
• What if the thickness of a sol
id was made of several layer
s of different materials (i.e a
composite material). How do
we work out the rate of heat
transfer H? We can make ou
r job easier by defining anot
her term: thermal resistance
R.

• where L is the length of the s

olid, and k is the thermal con
ductivity.

• where R1, R2, etc are the ther

mal resistances of materials
1, 2. etc. This makes calculat
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 23
ions for composite slabs so
 Heat Convection
• Convection is heat transfer by mass mo
tion of a fluid such as air or water when
the heated fluid is caused to move away
from the source of heat, carrying energ
y with it.
• Convection above a hot surface occurs
because hot air expands, becomes less
dense, and rises (see Ideal Gas Law).

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 Heat Convection…
• Hot water is likewise less dense than cold wat
er and rises, causing convection currents whi
ch transport energy.

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 Heat Convection…
• Convection can also lead to circulation in a li
quid, as in the heating of a pot of water over a
flame.
– Heated water expands and becomes more buoyan
t.
– Cooler, more dense water near the surface descen
ds and patterns of circulation can be formed, thou
gh they will not be as regular as suggested in the d
rawing.

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 Heat Radiation
Radiation is heat transfer by the emission of electromag
netic waves which carry energy away from the emitti
ng object.
For ordinary temperatures (less than red hot"), the radia
tion is in the infrared region of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
The relationship governing radiation from hot objects is
called the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

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 Stefan-Boltzmann Law
• The energy radiated by a
blackbody radiator per second
per unit area is proportional to t
he fourth power of the
absolute temperature and is giv
en by
• For hot objects other than ideal
radiators, the law is expressed i
n the form:
• where e is the emissivity of the
object (e = 1 for ideal radiator).
If the hot object is radiating ene
rgy to its cooler surroundings at
temperature Tc, the net radiatio
n loss rate takes the form:

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 28

 Radiation in our life
• Energy is transferred by electromagnetic radiation. All of the ea
rth's energy is transferred from the Sun by radiation. Our bodie
s radiate electromagnetic waves in a part of the spectrum that w
e can't see called the infra-red. However, there are some camer
as that can actually see this radiation.
• The colour and texture of different surfaces determines how wel
l they absorb the radiation.
– (1) Black objects absorb more radiation than white objects.
– (2) Matt and rough surfaces absorb more than shiney and smooth s
urfaces.

• If you are ever in the snow, take a black and a white piece of ca
rdboard, both the same size. Lay them down on the snow side b
y side. Over time you will notice that the black cardboard sinks
deeper into the snow because it absorbs more heat from the su
n and therefore melts more snow underneath it. You will notice
this effect if you wear a black jumper and sit in the sun. You be
come warm more quickly than if you wore other coloured jump
ers.
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 Radiation by the Sun
• The Sun at 5800K a
nd a hot campfire at
perhaps 800 K give
off radiation at a rat
e proportional to the
4th power of the tem
perature

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 30

 Greenhouse Effect #1
• In a greenhouse, the incident radiation from t
he sun readily passes through the glass. Insid
e, the radiation is absorbed by objects as well
as the air, but the air cannot escape since it is
all enclosed. Consequently, its temperature st
arts to rises. More radiation coming in means
higher air temperature. This can also happen
in a car if all the windows are closed. In this c
ase temperatures can reach incredibly high v
alues. People and pets who have been left in
cars with the windows closed have died from
the high temperatures. So mainly the glass pr
events convective losses by stopping the upw
ard flow of warm air.
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 Greenhouse Effect #2
• In a sense, the earth is a huge greenhouse, with the atmosphere
replacing the glass. The water vapour and carbon dioxide in the
air are good absorbers of infra-red radiation. Sunlight passes thr
ough the atmosphere and heats up the Earth and the atmosphe
re. The Earth then emits the radiation out again, but in a differe
nt part of the electromagnetic spectrum i.e the infra-red. As it tu
rns out, the infra-red does not readily pass through certain gase
s such as carbon dioxide, water vapour, and methane. So these
gases trap the energy from the emitted radiation which in turn
warms up the atmosphere to the comfortable temperatures that
we experience. This is the Greenhouse effect and it actually is a
beneficial phenomenon that helps to support life on Earth. Oth
erwise the Earth will be as cold and baron as the moon. The pro
blem arises when you put a lot of these greenhouse gases into t
he atmosphere (too much of a good thing in this case is a bad t
hing for life forms such as us). The burning of fossil fuels increa
ses the carbon dioxide level. This means that more of the infra-r
ed, which is radiated by the earth, will be absorbed by the atmo
sphere. This could increase the average temperature of the eart
h and lead to major climatic changes. Some of which may not b
e in our best interests! MATRIKULASI DEPAG
20 Juni 2006 32
 Heat Transfer Example

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 33

 Heat Capacity
• Heat capacity (denoted as C) is a measurable
physical quantity that characterizes the abilit
y of a body to store heat.
• It is defined as the amount of heat needed at
the given conditions and state of the body (fo
remost its temperature) to raise its temperatu
re by one degree.
• Therefore, heat capacity is measured in units
of joules per kelvin and is an
extensive quantity.
• Dividing heat capacity by the body's mass yie
lds a specific heat, which is an
intensive quantity.
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 Heat Capacity
• The ratio of the energy transferred and t
he change in temperature is called the
heat capacity
 

– where ∆T=Tfinal - Tinitial. Where Q is the amou

nt of heat transferred

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 Specific Heat
 
• The Specific heat is the number of joules required to raise 1kg 1 Kelvin. Specifi
cally from the heat capacity:

•
• where c is the specific heat and m is the mass. So now the amount of heat transfe
rred Q is given by

•
• where the c is expressed in units of J .kg-1 K-1
• Another way of expressing this relationship is in terms of moles. That is

•
• where n is the number of moles and c, in this case, is the molar specific heat expr
essed in units of J mole-1 K-1.
• The specific heat is a constant for a particular material. It does NOT depend on
mass. We can use this relationship to check out our microwave ovens.

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 36

 Example phenomenon
• Three equal masses of Al (c=900 J/kg.K), Cu (c=386 J/kg.K), Pb (c=128 J/
kg.K). All three masses are heated to the same temperature. If each mass w
as plunged in a separate beaker containing the same amount of water as the
other beakers, then wouldn't we expect the temperature of the water in the t
hree beaker to be raised to the same final temperature. Well many people w
ould, however a glance at the equation

• will show that the amount of heat transferred, Q, is dependent on the size o
f the specific heat c. The smaller the c, the smaller the amount of heat trans
ferred and since all the beakers contain the same amount of water, m, the s
maller the temperature change.

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 37

 Suggestion for your mother
• The specific heat of Aluminium is 900 J/kg.K,
Copper 386 J/kg.K, Iron (Fe) 447 J/kg.K. Thi
s means that less heat is required to heat a co
pper cooking pan than a steel or aluminium o
ne of equal mass.
• If you recall that copper is a much better ther
mal conductor than either aluminium or iron.
• So it is much more energy efficient to buy an
all copper pan. So take note of this the next ti
me you are shopping for cookware.
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 Change of Phases
• In general, the temperature stays constant during any phase ch
ange. That is, from solid to liquid and liquid to gas, although e
nergy (i.e heat) is still transferred.

• There are some definitions we must add at this stage. These ar

e:
– Melting point - temperature at which a solid turns to a liquid or vice ve
rsa.
– Boiling point - temperature at which a liquid turns to a gas (or vapour)
or vice versa.

• These points can be changed by adding impurities to the water

or ice.

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 39

 Example Phenomenon
• Put a piece of string on an ice cube, which is straight out of the
fridge. Sprinkle some salt on the string/ice cube. Wait a few sec
onds, you will then be able to lift the ice cube by the string. The
string seems to have become glued to the cube.
 
• The explanation is this: The salt lowers the freezing temperatur
e of ice. That is, the ice has a good chance of melting if it isn't to
o cold. So the melted ice soaks into the string. The salt now bec
omes less concentrated as it diffuses out of the region of the stri
ng so the freezing temperature is raised again. Since the rest of
the ice cube is still at a temperature below freezing, the water w
ill re-freeze including that which has soaked into the string. So t
he string will essentially be frozen to the cube.
 
• An almost similar thing happens when you try and lick an ice tr
ay. The tray is say at -15 ºC so it freezes the moister on your ton
gue.

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 40

 Phase Diagram of Water
• This type of diagram is very common in
materials science and helps us determine
the phase of the material for different tem
peratures and pressures.

• There are three regions: solid, liquid, and

vapour, separated by boundaries.

• How do you read this diagram? As an exa

mple, say you were trying to find out wh
ether water is a solid, liquid or gas at a te
mperature of 50 ºC and pressure of 50 kP
a.
• Draw a line up from 50 ºC and a line acro
ss from 50 kPa; the intersection is in the l
iquid region of the diagram.

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 41

 How pressure cookers work
• These are essentially cooking pots with an air tight li
d. As water is heated and turns to vapour, the pressu
re builds up because the vapour cannot escape.
• Water usually boils and turns to steam (vapour) at 10
0 ºC at a pressure of 1 atmosphere (i.e 101 kPa).
• By increasing the pressure we can see from the phas
e diagram that the water can be heated to higher tem
peratures before it enters the vapour region.
• This means that anything being cooked inside the po
t will experience higher temperatures and therefore t
he cooking time will be less.
• But will it taste as good?

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 42

 Latent Heat
• Energy is acquired or released when a material changes phase.
– For example, energy is required to melt ice and vaporise water.
– However, energy is given out if water vapour condenses or water freezes.
– The heat acquired or released is called the latent heat.
– During a phase change there is no change in temperature so we cannot use the eq
uation containing the specific heat to determine the amount of heat transferred. T
he formal definition of latent heat is the energy given out or absorbed without a c
hange in temperature and is given by
 

  Q is the heat, m is the mass, L is a constant for a certain material and is called
the Latent heat of fusion (for melting) or vaporisation (for boiling).
• Latent heat of fusion is the energy required to melt 1 kg of a solid. The unit
s are J.kg-1.
• Latent heat of vaporisation is the energy required to evaporate 1 kg of a liq
uid. The units are J.kg-1.
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 43
 Example #2
How many 20 g ice cubes, whose initial temperature is -10 ºC, m
ust be added to 1.0 L of hot tea, whose initial temperature is 90 º
C, in order that the final temperature of the mixture be 10 ºC? Ass
ume all the ice melts in the final mixture and the specific heat of t
ea is the same as that of water.

Latent heat of fusion of ice = Lv = 333 kJ. kg-1 = 333000 J. kg-1

Specific heat of water = cwater = 4190 J. kg-1 K-1
Specific heat of ice = cice = 2100 J. kg-1 K-1
Assume that the tea has the same properties as water. Note that 1
litre of water has a mass of 1 kg.
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 44
 Solution #2…
• Let mice be the mass of ice required, mtea be the mass of tea = m
ass of water with the same volume = 1kg . Use conservation of
energy. The energy required to melt the ice, then heat it to 10 º
C, must come from the tea.
• The following are the three stages the ice must go through to r
each the final temperature of 10 ºC:
– (i) ice heats up from -10 ºC to 0 ºC
– (ii) ice melts at 0 ºC
– (iii) melted ice heats up from 0 ºC to 10 ºC
– (iv) energy for stages (i), (ii), and (iii) must come from tea.

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 45

 Solution #2…
•Now conserve energy: i.e
Energy required for (i) + (ii) + (iii) = Energy lost by tea
The expressions for the different stages are given by
(i) mice cice  DT(i) = mice (2100 J. kg-1 K-1)  (0 ºC - (-10 ºC)) = mice 2100 x
10 = 21000 mice
(ii) mice Lv  = mice 333000
(iii) mice cwater DT(iii) = mice (4190 J. kg-1 K-1) (10 ºC - 0 ºC) = mice41900
(iv) mtea cwater DTtea= (1 kg) (4190 J. kg-1 K-1) (90 ºC - 10 ºC) = 335200
 
•Using the conservation of energy equation above we have
21000 mice + mice 333000 + mice41900 = 335200
Now solving for mice we get mice = 0.847 kg = 847 g of ice are needed. Divid
e this by the mass of one ice cube (20 g) to find out how many cubes are need
ed.
847  20 » 43 ice cubes
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 46
 Energy and Change of Phase
A solid must absorb energy to melt, and a liquid must absorb
energy to vaporize. Conversely, a gas must release energy to
liquefy, and a liquid must release energy to solidify

Energy is absorbed when

change of phase is in this
direction
Gas
Solid Liquid

Energy is released when

Energy conservation
change of phase is in this
(Black Principle):
direction
Qabsorbed= Qreleased
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 47
 Temperature versus Heat
A graph showing the energy involved in the heating and changes
of phase of 1 g of water. Lf is latent heat of fusion, Lv is latent h
eat of vaporation.
Q  mc steam T3

Q  mc water T2 Q  mLv

a m
vaporizing ste
100oC
Temperature

Q  mLf
melting t er
0o C wa
ice

-50oC
335 J 418 J 2255 J
Heat
Q  mc ice T1

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 48

 Example#1
Calculate the total heat that must be prov
ided to change 2 kg ice of -10oC to be
steam of 120oC. Use the following par
ameters for your answer.
cice= 2100 J/kg K,
cwater= 4180 J/kg K,
csteam= 2010 J/kg K,
Lf = 2256x103 J/kg,
Lv = 334x103 J/kg
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 49
 Answer #1
Q1=(2 kg)(2100 J/kgK)(10K) = 42000 J Q2=(2 kg)(334x103 J/kg) = 668000 J

Q3=(2 kg)(4180 J/kgK)(100K) = 836000 J Q4=(2 kg)(2256x103 J/kg) = 4512000 J

Q5=(2 kg)(2010 J/kgK)(20K) = 42000 J Q5  mcsteam T3

Q3  mcwater T2 Q4  mLv

a m
vaporizing ste
100oC
Temperature

Q2  mLf
melting t er
0o C wa
ice

-50oC
335 J 418 J 2255 J
Heat
Q1  mc ice T1

Total heat Q = Q1+ Q2+Q3+Q4+Q5 = 6138400 J

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 50
 Example #2
1 . A clear night is usually colder than a n
ight when the sky is overcast, why?
2 . An object A of mass ma and specific h
eat ca, and another object B of mass
mb and specxific heat cb. Find:
• The heat capacity of the mixture
• The specific heat of mixture

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 51

 Example #3
1 . a block of ice is allowed to float ice

on top of a beaker of water. Afte

r the ice has melted, the water l
evel in the beaker will remain u water

nchanged, why? ice

2 . Now another block of pure ice i
s allowed to float on top of a con
centrated salt solution in anothe Concentrate
salt solution

r beaker. After the ice has melte

d, the level of the solution will ri
se, why?
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 52
 Example #4
Two liquids X and Y of equal weight are p
ut in identical vessels, and heat is s
upplied to them at the same rate. Th
e temperature-time graph are drawn
as shown. The grap shows that: X
I. Y has a higher thermal capacity

temperature
II. Y has a smaller specific heat capacit
Y
y
III. Y has alarger latent heat of vaporati
on
a. All of them
b. I and II only
c. II and III only time
d. I AND III only
e. III only
20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 53
 First Law of Thermodynamics
• The first law of thermodynamics is the applicatio
n of the conservation of energy principle to heat
and thermodynamic processes:
• The change in internal energy of a system (ΔU) i
s equal to the heat added to the system (Q) minu
s the work done by the system (W).

U  Q  W
• The first law makes use of the key concepts of
internal energy, heat, and system work. It is used
extensively in the discussion of heat engines.

20 Juni 2006 MATRIKULASI DEPAG 54