Industrial chemistry

Mehran colleges rawat

Introduction
Industrial chemistry is the manufacturing art
concerned with the transformation of matter into useful
materials in useful amounts. Usually this transformation
of available materials into more desirable ones involves
some kind of process following a recipe. In turn the
process may involve grinding, mixing together various
ingredients, dissolving, heating, allowing ingredients to
interact (chemically or biochemically react forming new
compositions of matter), cooling, evaporating or
distilling, growing crystals, filtering, and other physical-
chemical-biological operations.
Cont..
Link b/w classical and industrial chemistry:
Classical chemistry is very essential for advancing the science of
chemistry by discovering and reporting new products, routes and
techniques. ... The scope of industrial chemistry therefore includes:
The exploitation of materials and energy in appropriate scale.
Scope of industrial chemistry:
The scope of industrial chemistry includes:
The use of materials and energy in appropriate scale.
Application of science and technology to enable humanity experinces
the benefits of chemistry in differsnt areas:food production,health
and hygiene,shelter,protection,recreation and entertainment.
Chemical industry types
The chemical industry can also be classified according to
the type of main raw materials used and type of principle
products made.
Industrial inorganic chemical industries: These industries
extract inorganic chemical substnaces,make composites of
the same also synthesize inorganic chemicals.
Industrial organic chemical industries: Heavy industries
produce petroleum fuels,polymers,petrochemiclas etc.
Light organic industries produce chemicals which include
pharmaceuticals,dyes,pigments and
paints,pesticides,soaps and detergents etc.
Commodity and specialty chemicals
Commodity chemicals (or bulk commodities or
bulk chemicals) are a group of chemicals that are made on a
very large scale to satisfy global markets. The average prices
of commodity chemicals are regularly published in
the chemical trade magazines and web sites.
Some of the top basic inorganic chemicals are:sulphuric
acid,nitrogen,oxygen,ammonia,lime,sodium
hydroxide,phosphoric acid and chlorine.Sulphuric acid is
always number one.it is because it is used in the manufacture of
fertilizers,polymers,drugd,paints,detergent and paper.
Among top ten basic organic chemicals are ethylene and
propylene.
Specialty chemicals
Specialty chemicals are particular chemical products
which provide a wide variety of effects on which many
other industry sectors rely. Specialty chemicals, also
known as performance chemicals, are used as ingredients
in finished products and to improve manufacturing
processes.
These are high value-added products produced in low
volumes and sold on the basis of a specific function.
Example: medicinal chemicals, agrochemicals, pigments ,
flavor and fragrances ,personal care products , surfactants
and adhesives.
Fine chemicals
Fine chemicals are complex, single, pure chemical
substances, produced in limited quantities in
multipurpose plants by multistep batch chemical or
biotechnological processes.
They are high value-added pure organic chemicals
substances produced in relatively low volumes and
sold on the basis of exact specifications of purity
rather than functional characteristics.
Example: research chemicals, pharmaceutical
ingredients.
Raw materials for the chemical industry
All chemicals are derived from raw materials available in nature.
The price of chemicals depends on the availability of their raw
materials.
Raw materials from the atmosphere: The atmosphere is the
field above ground leve.It is the source of air from which six
industrial gases(nitrogen,oxy,neon,Ar,Kr and Xe) are
manufactured.
Raw materials from the hydrosphere: Ocean water is about
1.5x10 raise power liters.
Seawater is a good source of sodium chloride,magnesium and
bromine.
Cont.
Raw materials from the lithosphere: The vast
majority of elements are obtained from the earth’s
crust in the form of mineral ores , carbon and
hydrocarbons.
Coal , natural gas and crude petroleum are used as energy
sources . These are also converted to thousands of
chemicals.
Raw materials from biosphere: Vegetation and animals
contribute raw materials to the so-called agro-based
industries.
Oils, fats , waxes, sugar, natural fibers and leather.
Dyes
 Dyes
Dye: A dye is a colored compound , normally used in
solution , which is capable of being fixed to a fabric. The
dye must be “fast” or chemically stable so that the color
will not wash with soap and water , or fade on exposure
to sunlight.
A dye owes its color to the presence of a chromophore
and its fixing property to the acidic or basic
auxochromic groups such as OH, SO3H,NH2, etc. The
polar auxochrome makes the dye water –soluble and
binds the dye to the fabric by interaction with the
oppositely charged groups of the fabric structure.
Cont..
A chromophore is the part of a molecule responsible
for its color. The color that is seen by our eyes is the
one not absorbed within a certain wavelength
spectrum of visible light.
Auxochrome is a group of atoms which will impart a
particular color when attached to a chromophore but
when present alone, will fail to produce that
color. Chromophore is that part of the molecule
which when exposed to visible light will absorb and
reflect a certain color.
Classification of dyes by structure
Dyes may be classified according to the type of
chromophores present in their structures.This
method of classification includes the following main
types:
Nitro and nitroso dyes
Azo dyes
Triarylmethane dyes.
Nitro and nitroso dyes
Nitro and nitroso dyes: The NO2 and NO groups are
chromophores and OH is auxochrome in this class of
dyes.
Example are: naphthol yellow and mordant green.
Azo dyes
The azo dyes contain one or more azo groups , -N=N-
as the primary chromophore . The common
auxochromes are NH2 , NR2, OH, SO3H, etc.
Azo dyes form the largest and most impotant group of
synthetic dyes . They are highly colored.
Examples are: para red, methyl orange,congo
red,bismarck brown.
Para red
It was the first azo dye to be prepared.Para red is
obtained by the reaction of diazotized p-nitroaniline
with beta –naphthol on fabric itself.
Methyl orange
Methyl orange is obtained from sulphanilic acid.
Methyl orange is prepared from sulfanilic acid and
N,N-dimethylaniline. The first product obtained from
the coupling is the bright red acid form of methyl
orange, called helianthin. In base, helanthin is
converted to the orange sodium salt, called methyl
orange.
Cont..
Methyl orange imparts orange color to wool and silk
but the color is not fast to sunlight or washing.It is
valuable indicator for acid-base titrations because it
gives yellow color in basic and red color in acid
solution.The change in color is due to the change in
the structure of the ions.
Congo red
Congo red contains two azo groups. It is obtained by
coupling tetrazotised benzinide with two molecules of
naphthionic acid.
Cont..
It is a direct dye and its sodium salt is used for dying
cotton red from aqueous solutions.It is also used as
indicator.
Bismarck brown
It is obtained by coupling tetrazotised m-
diaminobenzene with two molecules ofm-
diaminibenzene.It is used in boot polish and for
dyeing wool and cotton.
Triarylmethane Dyes
In these dyes, a central carbon is bonded to three
aromatic rings one of which is in the quinoid form(the
chromophore).The auxochrome are –NH2, -NR2, and
–OH.
Examples are: Malachite green
Phenolphthalein
Anthraquinone
Indigo dyes
Malachite green
Malachite green has a deep green-blue color.Although
the color fades in light, it is used as a direct dye for
wool and silk.
Phenolphthalein
It is also a triarylmethane dye but it is better known as
an acid-base indicator.
Cont..
It is prepared by heating phthalic acid and phenol in
the presence of anhydrous zinc chloride at 120 degree
Celsius.
Anthraquinone dyes
The para quinoid chromophore is present in these
anthracene-type dyes .Alizarin is a typical
anthraquinone dye. alizarin forms ruby red crystals
which dissolve in alkali to give purple solution.
Indigo dye
Indigo is an example of the type of dyes which contain
carbonyl chromophore.it is dark blue crystalline
compound, insoluble in water.
Classification of dyes by methods of
application
The method used for application of dye in a particular
case depends on the nature of both the dye and the
fiber to be dyed. The dyes are often classified on the
basis of technique employed for their application.
Direct dyes.
Vat dyes.
Mordant dyes.
Azoic dyes.
Disperse dyes.
 Direct dyes
These can be applied to a fabric by direct immersion
in a water solution of the dye.A direct dye contains
acidic or basic auxochrome which combines with the
opposite polar group present in the chemical structure
of fiber . Wool and silk are readily dyed by this
method. Martius Yellow , a typical direct dye,has the
acidic auxochrome –OH which interacts with the
basic-NH2 group of wool or silk.
Fiber -------NH2+HO----dye → Fiber ------NH3+----O---- dye
 Vat dyes
These dyes are insoluble in water but on reduction with
sodium hydrosulphide in a vat(large tank or tub) , form a
colorless compound which has a great affinity for cotton
and other cellulose fibers . The cloth is soaked in the
solution of a reduced dye and then hung in air , or treated
with oxidants . As a result , the colorless compound is
oxidized back to the insoluble dye which is now bound to
the fabric . Indigo is a good example of a vat dye.
Indigo blue has auxochrome –OH which bind the dye fast
to the cellulose fiber that contains ethereal oxygen and
OH groups by hydrogen bonding.
 Mordant dye
A mordant or dye fixative is a substance used to set (i.e.
bind) dyes on fabrics by forming a coordination complex with
the dye, which then attaches to the fabric (or tissue). It may be
used for dyeing fabrics or for intensifying stains in cell or
tissue preparations.
This class of dyes has no natural affinity for the fabric and are
applied to it with the help of salts e.g., oxides of aluminum or
chromium. These salts are called Mordants.
A fiber such as cotton is first treated with a mordant and then
with the dye. Mordant forms an insoluble coordination
complex between fiber and the dye and binds the two. Alizarin
is an example of a mordant dye.
 Azoic dyes
In this method of dyeing, the water insoluble azo dye
is produced in the fabric itself. The cloth is first soaked
in the solution of a coupling reagent usually a phenol
or naphthol. Then it is immersed in the solution of an
auxochrome. The azoic dyeing is particularly suitbale
for cotton and other cellulosic fiber but may also be
used for nylon.
Disperse dyes
These dyes are insoluble in water but can be dispersed
in a colloidal form in water. The fabric is immersed in
the colloidal dispersion of the dye. The fine dye particles
are absorbed into the crystal structure of the fabric.
Disperse dyes are dyes intended for polyester, acetate,
and related hydrophobic fibers. It is estimated that 85%
of disperse dyes are azo or
anthraquinone dyes. Disperse dye have low solubility
in water, typically less than 1 mg/L. They are applied to
the article as an extremely fine suspension.
Pesticides
Pesticides
Pesticides are substances that are meant to control
pests, including weeds. The term pesticide includes
all of the following: herbicide, insecticides
nematicide ...
Types of pesticides:
Insecticides, milicides, fungicides, herbicides,
rodenticides, nematicides , molluscicides ,
repellent
Types of pesticides
Insecticides : Insecticides are pesticides that are formulated
to kill, harm, repel or mitigate one or more species of
insect. Insecticides work in different ways.
Some insecticides disrupt the nervous system, whereas others
may damage their exoskeletons, repel them or control them by
some other means.
Miticides: "Miticides" are substances that kill mites. The
term "arachnicide" is more general, and refers to agents that
target arachnids. Acaricides are pesticides that kill members of
the arachnid subclass Acari, which includes ticks and mites.
Acaricides are used both in medicine and agriculture, although
the desired selective toxicity differs between the two fields.
Cont..
Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds or biological
organisms used to kill parasitic fungi or their spores. A fungistatic
inhibits their growth. Fungi can cause serious damage in
agriculture, resulting in critical losses of yield, quality, and profit.
Herbicides : also commonly known as weedkillers, are
substances used to control unwanted plants. Selective herbicides
control specific weed species, while leaving the desired crop
relatively unharmed. Selective herbicides destroy certain plants
as they work on processes that happen in those plants only,
while non-selective herbicides will destroy any plant as they
work on processes that happen in all present plants. 
Cont.
Rodenticides: rat poison, are typically non-specific
pest control chemicals made and sold for the purpose
of killing rodents. Some rodenticides are lethal after
one exposure while others require more than one.
Nematicides: A nematicide is a type of chemical
pesticide used to kill plant-parasitic nematodes.
Nematicides have tended to be broad-spectrum
toxicants possessing high volatility or other properties
promoting migration through the soil. 
Cont..
Molluscicides also known as snail baits, snail pellets or
slug pellets, are pesticides against molluscs, which are
usually used in agriculture or gardening, in order to
control gastropod pests specifically slugs and snails which
damage crops or other valued plants by feeding on them.
An insect repellent: (also commonly called "bug spray")
is a substance applied to skin, clothing, or other surfaces
which discourages insects (and arthropods in general)
from landing or climbing on that surface. Insect repellents
help prevent and control the outbreak of insect-borne
 (and other arthropod-bourne) diseases such as malaria,
Petrochemicals
Petrochemicals
Petrochemicals (also known as petroleum distillates)
are the chemical products obtained from petroleum by
refining. Some chemical compounds made from
petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels, such
as coal or natural gas, or renewable sources such as
maize, palm fruit or sugar cane.
Key raw materials in the petrochemical industry
include products of petroleum oil
refining. Petrochemical goods include: ethylene,
propylene, and benzene; source monomers for synthetic
rubbers; and inputs for technical carbon.
Types of petrochemical Raw materials
Primary petrochemicals are divided into three groups
depending on their chemical structure:
Olefins include ethylene, propylene, and butadiene . Olefins
are the basis for polymers and oilgomers used in plastic, resins,
fibers, lubricants and gels.
Aromatics include benzene, toluene, and xylene. At oil
refineries, aromatic hydrocarbons are mainly produced by
catalytic reforming.
Synthesis gas is a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen
used to make ammonia and methanol. Ammonia is used to
make the fertilizer urea and methanol is used as a solvent and
chemical intermediate.
Synthetic polymers
A polymer is a substance or material consisting of very large
molecules, or macromolecules, composed of many
repeating subunits.The repeating units are usually obtained
from low molecular weight simple compounds refered as
Monomers.
 Polymerizaion, is a process of reacting monomer
molecules together in a chemical reaction to form polymer
chains or three-dimensional networks.
If a polymer consists of only one kind of monomers then it
is called a homopolymer, while a polymer which consists
of more than one kind of monomers is called a copolymer.
Cont..
Polyethylene (PE) is a made by the reaction of
multiple ethylene molecules in the presence of catalyst
to break the double bond and connect the carbon
atoms into a chain.
Classification of polymers
There are two main types of polymers: addition
polymers and Condensation polymers.
An addition polymer is a polymer that forms by
simple linking of monomers without the co-
generation of other products.These reactions are
catalysed by peroxides or acids.The reactions require
pressures of 1000atm at 2000◦C. Much lower
temperature can be used with so called Ziegler Catalysts
which consist of a trialkyl aluminum and titanium
tetrachloride in an inert solvent.
Polyethylene
Polyethylene is the most popular plastic in the world.
This is the polymer that makes grocery bags, shampoo
bottles, children's toys, and even bullet proof vests. For
such a versatile material, it has a very simple structure,
the simplest of all commercial polymers.
Cont..
Notice that the monomers contains a double bond
and the polymer does not. The electrons of the
monomer pi bond have moved and are used to link
one monomers unit to another by sigma bond.
Polyvinyl chloride
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC or Vinyl) is a high strength
thermoplastic material widely used in applications,
such as pipes, medical devices, wire and cable
insulation.. Polyvinyl chloride is the world's third-
most widely produced synthetic plastic polymer.
About 40 million tons of PVC are produced each year.
PVC comes in two basic forms: rigid and flexible. 
Condensation polymers
Condensation polymers are any kind
of polymers formed through
a condensation reaction—where molecules join
together—losing small molecules as byproducts such
as water or methanol.
There are two main types of condensation polmers:
Polyesters and Polyamides
The most common example is:
Nylon 6,6
Nylon 66 (nylon 6-6, nylon 6/6 or nylon 6,6) is a
type of polyamide or nylon. It, and nylon 6, are the
two most common for textile and plastic
industries. Nylon 66 is made of two monomers each
containing 6 carbon atoms, hexamethylenediamine
and adipic acid, which give nylon 66 its name.
(because both have 6 carbon atoms).
Thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers
The primary physical difference is
that thermoplastics can be remelted back into a
liquid, whereas thermosetting plastics always remain
in a permanent solid state. Think
of thermoplastics as butter – butter can be melted
and cooled multiple times to form various shapes.