SAMPLING ANALYSIS

 Contents:
 Introduction
 Sampling techniques
 Sampling Bias and Sampling Error
 Introduction
 Why sampling is necessary?
 Cos: constrained budget
 Time: we don’t have forever to conduct research
 Practicalities: makes sense to work on a sample and infer the results to
the entire population than working on the population itself, (i.e
working on the sample just could do)
 Introduction cont’d
 Population: consists of the entire group of individuals
Example: a researcher may be interested in the relation between
class size (variable 1) and academic performance (variable 2) for the
population of Second year BCom students.

 Sample: A sample is selected to represent the population

in a research study.
-Usually populations are so large that a researcher cannot examine
the entire group.
-The goal is to use the results obtained from the sample to help
answer questions about the population
Introduction cont’d
 Parameter: Is a descriptive measure of population
 Statistic: Is a descriptive measure of sample
 Sampling Techniques
 The sampling techniques available can be divided into
two types:
(a) probability or representative sampling;
(b) non-probability or judgmental sampling.
 Probability Sampling Techniques
 With probability samples the chance, or probability, of
each case being selected from the population is known
and is usually equal for all cases. (mostly used in
surveys and experimental research strategies)
-Examples: simple random sampling, systematic random sampling,
stratified random and cluster sampling and multistage sampling
 Simple Random Sampling

A generic Example
 Imagine that a researcher wants to understand more
about the career goals of students at the university of
Dar Es Salaam main campus. Let's say that the
university has roughly 11,000 students. These 11,000
students are our population (N). Each of the 10,000
students is known as a unit/case/item
 Simple Random Sampling Cont’d

 With SRS, There would be an equal chance that each of the 11,000
students could be selected for inclusion in our sample

 In order to create a simple random sample, a researcher does the

following:
 (1) defines the population; (2) chooses sample size; (3) lists the population; (4)
assigns numbers to the units; (5) finds random numbers; (6) selects the sample

 Identify the population and number all the cases off. Then, take each one
of those numbers and randomly choose the numbers to include in the
sample. How?
 Putting the numbers in a hat and picking out at rndom until the desired sample size is
achieved
 Using technology: randomly generate numbers.
 Simple Random Sampling Cont’d

 Advantages:
The aim of the simple random sample is to reduce the
potential for human bias in the selection of cases to be
included in the sample. As a result, the simple random
sample provides us with a sample that is highly
representative of the population being studied, assuming
that there is limited missing data

 Disadvantages:
 Systematic Random Sampling
  To create a systemic random sample, there are seven
steps:
 (a) defining the population; (b) choosing your sample size; (c)
listing the population; (d) assigning numbers to cases; (e)
calculating the sampling fraction; (f) selecting the first unit; and
(g) selecting your sample
Sampling fraction =
Systematic Random Sampling Cont’d

Advantages:
 Relative to the simple random sample, the selection of units
using a systematic procedure can be viewed as superior because
it improves the potential for the units to be more evenly spread
over the population
Disadvantages:
 Stratified Random Sampling
 Stratified Random Sampling/Proportional sampling = In this case the
population is divided into homogeneous subgroups (two or more mutually
exclusive segments, called strata). Then simple random samples are drawn
from each stratum and these sub-samples are joined to form the complete,
stratified sample.
 Imagine we were interested in comparing the differences in career goals between
male and female students at the University of Dar Es Salaam
 To create a stratified random sample, there are seven steps:
 (a) defining the population; (b) choosing the relevant stratification; (c) listing the population; (d) listing the
population according to the chosen stratification; (e) choosing your sample size; (f) calculating a proportionate
stratification; and (g) using a simple random or systematic sample to select your sample
 Stratified Random Sampling
Cont’d
 Advantages:

 Disadvantages:
 Cluster Sampling
 the population is broken down into groups of
cases, called clusters. The clusters normally
consist of natural groupings, such as colleges and
churches, or geographic areas, such as states,
countries, cities and blocks. Unlike stratified
sampling, which draws cases from each stratum,
cluster sampling draws cases only from sampled
clusters.
 Multistage Sampling
 More frequently, cluster sampling involves sampling at two or
more steps or stages, hence the term multistage cluster
sampling
 MCS involves randomly choosing clusters and then randomly

choosing subjects from each cluster. It is known as 'multistage'

because there are multiple stages, or steps, to creating the
sample

 Divide the population into clusters usually along geographical

boundaries, randomly select the clusters, measure the units in
the clusters, each element within these selected clusters is then
studied
 Sampling Techniques Cont’d
 For non-probability samples, the probability of each case
being selected from the population is not known and it is
impossible to answer research questions and make statistical
inferences about the characteristics of the population
 Unlike probability sampling,
 the goal is not to achieve objectivity in the selection of samples,
or necessarily attempt to make generalizations from the sample
being studied to the wider population of interest.
 Instead, researchers following a qualitative research design tend
to be interested in the intricacies of the sample being studied
- Examples: quota sampling, purposive, snowball, self-selection, and
convenience sampling
 Quota Sampling
 With proportional quota sampling, the aim is to end up
with a sample where the strata being studied (e.g. males
vs. females students) are proportional to the population
being studied
 For example, imagine we were interested in comparing
the differences in career goals between male and female
students at the University of Dar es Salaam. If this was
the case, we would want to ensure that the sample we
selected had a proportional number of male and female
students relative to the population
 Quota Sampling Cont’d
 To create a quota sample, there are three steps:
 (a) choosing the relevant stratification and dividing the population
accordingly; (b) calculating a quota for each stratum; and (c)
continuing to invite cases until the quota for each stratum is met

 Advantages:

 Disadvantages:
 Purposive Sampling
 Purposive sampling, also known as judgmental, reflects a
group of sampling techniques that rely on the judgement of the
researcher when it comes to selecting the units that are to be
studied.
 Techniques:
 (a) maximum variation; (b) homogeneous sampling; (c) typical case
sampling; (d) extreme case sampling; (e) total population sampling; and
(f) expert sampling
 Each of these methods has a specific goal, focusing on certain types
of units
 The main goal is to focus on particular characteristics of a
population that are of interest, which will best enable you to
answer your research questions
 Purposive Sampling Cont’d
 Advantages:

 Disadvantages:
 Convenience Sampling
 A convenience sample is simply one where the units that
are selected for inclusion in the sample are the easiest to
access.
 Reverting to the previous example on career goals, with
convenience sampling strategy;
 we may simply choose to stand at one of the main entrances to
campus of the University of DSM where it would be easy to invite
the many students that pass by to take part in the research.
 Advantages:

 Disadvantages:
 Snowball Sampling
 Snowball sampling is particularly appropriate when the
population you are interested in is hidden and/or hard-to-
reach
 Example: drug addicts, homeless people, individuals with
HIV/AIDS, prostitutes…
 Hard to reach because the exhibit some sort of social stigma,
illegal behaviors or other traits that render them atypical or
socially marginalized.
 To create a snowball sample, there are two steps:
 (a) identify one or more units in the desired population; and (b)
using these units to find further units and so on until the sample
size is met.
 Snowball Sampling Cont’d
 Advantages:

 Disadvantages:
 Self-selection Sampling
 Is appropriate when we want to allow units or cases,
whether individuals or organizations, to choose to take
part in research on their own accord
 The key component is that research subjects volunteer to
take part in the research rather than being approached by
the researcher directly.
 Can be used with a wide range of research designs and
research methods
 Example: survey researchers may put a questionnaire online
and subsequently invite anyone within a particular
organization to take part
 Self-selection Sampling Cont’d
 The self-selection sample involves two simple steps:
 (a) publicizing your need for units ; and (b) checking the relevance
of units and either inviting or rejecting them

 Advantages:

 Disadvantages:
 Sampling Bias
 Refers to the scenario that cases in a sample are not
representative of the traits inherent/exhibited in the
wider population from which the sample was drawn
 Sampling frames and population
– Sampling bias occurs when the sampling frame and the population are
not coherent
– Could lead to over-generalizations because a particular group in a
population is under or over-represented in the sample
 Conscious and unconscious human choices
– Especially in the non-probabilistic sampling techniques
 Non-response bias
 Sampling Error
 the amount by which an estimate differs from the
population value (due to sampling).
 also used in a general sense to refer to the tendency for
estimates to differ from the population value
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