Digestive System

CHAPTER 17
Introduction
Main portion of the digestive system is a long tube extending through the body
Food materials that enter the alimentary canal (digestive tube) are broken down into building
blocks
Building blocks are absorbed
Once, absorbed, building blocks are used to create the molecules needed by the body
Overview of the Digestive System
Digestion:
◦ The mechanical and chemical breakdown of food into forms that cell membranes can absorb:
◦ Mechanical digestion breaks down large pieces of food into smaller ones, but does not change chemical composition
◦ Chemical digestion breaks down food particles by changing them into simpler chemicals

Digestive System:
◦ Organs of the digestive system carry out mechanical and chemical digestion, as well as ingestion,
propulsion, absorption and defecation
◦ The digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and accessory organs
Organs of the
Digestive System
Alimentary canal:
◦ Consists of organs that extend from the mouth to
the anus
◦ The food passageway

Accessory organs:
◦ Consists of organs that secrete digestive fluids into
the alimentary canal
◦ Food does not pass through them
Layers of the Wall of the Alimentary
Canal
Wall of alimentary canal is composed of 4 layers
◦ Mucosa
◦ Innermost layer
◦ Mucous membrane
◦ Protection, secretion, absorption
◦ Submucosa
◦ Passage for larges vessels
◦ Nourishes cells
◦ Muscularis
◦ Muscle tissue
◦ Moves tube and food materials
◦ Serosa
◦ Outermost layer
◦ Serous fluid eliminates friction
Layer Composition Function

Mucosa Epithelium, connective tissue, smooth muscle Protection, secretion, absorption

Submucosa Loose connective tissue, blood vessels, Nourishes surrounding tissues,

lymphatic vessels, nerves flexibility, passage for blood vessels

Muscularis Smooth muscle cells in circular and Movements of the tube and its
longitudinal groups contents

Serosa Epithelium, connective tissue Protection, lubrication

Structure
of the
Wall
Movements of the Tube
Mixing movements:
◦ Muscle in small sections contracts rhythmically
◦ Does not move materials in one direction
◦ EX: segmentation
Propelling movements:
◦ Moves materials in one direction
◦ Peristalsis: ring of contraction progresses down tube; propels food
particles down the tract
Innervation of the Tube
Branches of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS innervate the alimentary
canal
◦ Submucosal plexus: controls secretions
◦ Myenteric plexus: controls gastrointestinal motility

Autonomic control of digestive activity:

◦ Parasympathetic impulses: increases activities of digestive system (secretion and motility)
◦ Sympathetic impulses: inhibit digestive actions (secretion and motility)
Mouth
First part of alimentary canal
Ingests food
Mastication: mechanical breakdown of solid
particles, mixes them with saliva
Functions as an organ of speech and sensory
reception
Surrounded by lips, cheeks, tongue, palate
Includes oral cavity and vestibule
Cheeks and Lips
Cheeks:
◦ Form lateral walls of the mouth
◦ Contain muscles for facial expression and chewing
◦ Inner lining of stratified squamous epithelium (moist)

Lips:
◦ Highly mobile structures that surround the mouth opening
◦ Sensory receptors judge temperature and texture of food
◦ Boundary between skin and mucous membrane inside mouth
Tongue
Thick, muscular organ that
occupies the floor of the mouth,
and nearly fills the oral cavity
when the mouth is closed
Lingual frenulum connects tongue
to floor of mouth
Papillae: projections that move
food, contain taste buds
Lingual tonsils: lymphatic tissue
masses on root of tongue
Palate
Forms the roof of the oral cavity
Consists of a hard (body) anterior part and a soft
(muscular) posterior part
The uvula extends from the soft palate
Palatine tonsils: lymphatic masses on sides of
tongue in the oropharynx
Pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids): masses of
lymphatic tissue in posterior wall of
nasopharynx
Teeth
Hardest structures in the body
20 primary (deciduous) teeth
32 secondary (permanent) teeth
Primary and Secondary Teeth
Section
of a
Tooth
Mouth Parts
and Their
Functions in
Digestion
Salivary Glands
Salivary glands secrete saliva:
◦ Moistens food particles and binds them together
◦ Dissolves food so it can be tasted
◦ Saliva contains salivary amylase and bicarbonate
◦ 3 pairs of major salivary glands:
◦ Parotid glands
◦ Submandibular glands
◦ Sublingual glands
Salivary Secretions
The different pairs of salivary glands have varying proportions of 2 types of secretory cells:
◦ Serous cells produce watery fluid, containing salivary amylase, which splits starch and glycogen into
disaccharides
◦ Mucous cells secrete mucus, which binds food particles and lubricates food while swallowing
The Major Salivary
Glands
Parotid glands:
◦ Largest in body
◦ Anterior/inferior to ear
◦ Serous glands
◦ Saliva contains amylase

Submandibular glands:
◦ Serous and mucous glands
◦ Floor of mouth

Sublingual glands:
◦ Under tongue
◦ Mainly mucous glands
Major Salivary
Glands
Pharynx and Esophagus
The pharynx is a cavity posterior to the mouth
Pharynx extends from the nasal cavity to esophagus
The esophagus is the tubular organ that extends from the pharynx to the stomach
Pharynx and esophagus do not help in food digestion
Both the pharynx and esophagus have muscular walls, which function in swallowing
Structure of the
Pharynx
The pharynx connects the nasal and oral
cavities, and can be divided into the following
parts:
◦ Nasopharynx
◦ Oropharynx
◦ Laryngopharynx
Swallowing Mechanism
First stage:
◦ Voluntary stage, in which saliva is mixed with chewed food, forming a bolus
◦ The tongue pushes the bolus into the oropharynx

Second stage:
◦ Begins as food reaches the oropharynx, stimulates sensory receptors, and triggers the swallowing reflex:
◦ The soft palate and uvula rise, to protect the nasal cavity from food
◦ The hyoid bone and larynx elevate
◦ The epiglottis closes off top of the larynx to protect the trachea
◦ The longitudinal muscles of the pharynx contract
◦ The inferior constrictor muscles relax, and the esophagus opens
◦ Peristaltic waves force food into the esophagus

Third stage:
◦ Peristalsis transports food in the esophagus to the stomach
Steps in
Swallowin
g Reflex
Esophagus
A muscular food passageway from the pharynx to the
stomach
Penetrates the diaphragm through the esophageal hiatus
Contains mucous glands in submucosa
Lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincter regulates food passage
into stomach
Stomach
Inferior to the diaphragm, in the upper-left portion of the abdominal cavity
Rugae are folds of mucosa and submucosa that allow for distention
Functions:
◦ Receives food from the esophagus
◦ Mixes food with gastric juice
◦ Initiates protein digestion
◦ Limited absorption
◦ Conducts food into small intestine
Parts of
the
Stomach
Gastric Secretions
Pepsinogen: Hydrochloric acid:
◦ Inactive form of pepsin; secreted by chief cells ◦ Converts pepsinogen into pepsin
◦ Pepsin: ◦ Secreted by parietal cells
◦ Active enzyme that breaks down proteins into polypeptides
◦ Forms from pepsinogen in presence of hydrochloric acid Mucus:
◦ Secreted by mucous cells
Gastric lipase: ◦ Provides lubrication and protects stomach lining
◦ Fat-splitting enzyme, found in small quantities
◦ Action inhibited b y low pH Intrinsic factor:
◦ Produced by parietal cells
◦ Required for absorption of vitamin B12
Stomach Wall
Gastric pit
◦ Gastric gland
◦ Secretes most of the gastric juice
◦ Consists of:
◦ Chief cells
◦ Secretes enzymes of gastric juice
◦ Parietal cells
◦ Secretes HCl
◦ Produces intrinsic factor
◦ Endocrine cells
◦ Secretes gastrin and ghrelin

Gastric muscularis
◦ Allows the stomach to contract strongly at many angles
Component Source Function
Pepsinogen Chief cells of the gastric glands Inactive form of pepsin

Pepsin Formed from pepsinogen in the A protein-splitting enzyme

Major
presence of hydrochloric acid that digests nearly all types
of dietary protein into
polypeptides

Hydrochloric acid Parietal cells of the gastric glands Provides the acid Components
of Gastric
environment needed for
production and action of
pepsin

Mucus Mucous cells Provides a viscous, alkaline

protective layer on the
stomach’s inner surface
Juice
Intrinsic factor Parietal cells of the gastric glands Necessary for vitamin B12
absorption in the small
intestine
Regulation of Gastric Secretions
Gastric juice is produced continuously
Rate of production varies, and is under neural and hormonal control
Neural regulation:
◦ Sympathetic impulses decrease gastric activity
◦ Parasympathetic impulses increase gastric activity; promote release of histamine, which stimulates
gastric secretion

Hormonal regulation:
◦ Somatostatin: inhibits HCl secretion
◦ Gastrin: increases gastric juice secretion
◦ Cholecystokinin (CCK): released by small intestine cells when proteins and fat enters the small intestine;
decreases gastric motility
Regulation
of Gastric
Secretions
Phases of Gastric Secretion
Phase Action
Cephalic phase The sight, taste, smell, or thought of food
triggers parasympathetic reflexes. Gastric
juice is secreted in response.
Gastric phase Food in stomach chemically and mechanically
stimulates release of gastrin, which, in turn,
stimulates secretion of gastric juice; reflex
responses also stimulate gastric juice
secretion.
Intestinal phase As food enters the small intestine, it
stimulates intestinal cells to release intestinal
gastrin, which, in turn, briefly promotes the
secretion of gastric juice from the stomach
wall. This phase primarily inhibits gastric juice
secretion.
Gastric Absorption
Pepsin begins protein digestion
Stomach wall is not well-adapted to absorb digestive products
Stomach does absorb:
◦ Some water
◦ Certain salts
◦ Certain lipid-soluble drugs
◦ Some alcohol
Mixing and
Emptying Actions
Mixing of food in the stomach
with gastric juice produces a
semifluid paste called chyme
Peristaltic waves push chyme
toward pylorus of stomach
Small amount of chyme is
transported through pyloric
sphincter at a time
Mixing and
Emptying Actions
When chyme starts to fill the duodenum, stretch
receptors initiate the enterogastric reflex. This
slows stomach emptying and intestinal filling.
Clinical Application: Heartburn
Stomachache results from eating a lot of food too quickly
It takes up to 20 minutes for the hypothalamus to sense a full stomach
Excess fullness leads to abdominal pain and gastric reflux, as stomach contents enter the
esophagus
Stomach contents in the esophagus cause inflammation, called esophagitis
◦ Feels like the pain is derived from the heart, so it is called heartburn

Antacids can provide some relief

Prevention: eat small meals, eat slowly, stay upright after eating, and avoid caffeine, nicotine,
and alcohol
Pancreas
The pancreas is an endocrine gland, secreting insulin and glucagon to regulate blood glucose
The pancreas is also an exocrine gland of the digestive system
In its exocrine function, it secretes digestive fluid called pancreatic juice
Structure of the Pancreas
Pancreatic acinar cells make up most of the pancreas, and release pancreatic juice into tiny
ducts which lead to the pancreatic duct
The pancreatic duct (along with the common bile duct from the liver and gallbladder) empties
into the duodenum of the small intestine
Pancreatic duct and common bile duct join at a dilated tube that is surrounded by a sphincter
◦ Sphincter controls movement of bile and pancreatic juice into duodenum
Structure
of the
Pancreas
Pancreatic Juice
Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest carbohydrates, fats, proteins, and nucleic acids
Components of pancreatic juice:
◦ Pancreatic amylase: splits starch and glycogen into disaccharides
◦ Pancreatic lipase: breaks down triglycerides
◦ Trypsin: digests proteins; released as inactive trypsinogen, which is activated by enterokinase in small
intestine
◦ Chymotrypsin: digests proteins; released as inactive chymotrypsinogen, and activated by trypsin
◦ Carboxypeptidase: digests proteins; released as inactive, activated by trypsin
◦ Nuclease: digests nucleic acids
◦ Bicarbonate ions: make pancreatic juice alkaline; buffer stomach acid
Regulation of
Pancreatic Secretion
Hormones that help regulate the
release of pancreatic juice:
◦ Secretin: stimulates pancreas to
release pancreatic juice high in
bicarbonate
◦ CCK: stimulates pancreas to release
pancreatic juice high in enzymes
Liver
Largest internal organ
Located in upper-right abdominal
quadrant, just beneath the
diaphragm
Reddish-brown organ
Well-supplied with blood vessels
Liver
Structure
Liver has four lobes
◦ Lobes are divided into hepatic
lobules

Hepatic lobules are the functional

units of the liver
◦ Consist of plates of hepatic cells
radiating out from a central vein
◦ Hepatic sinusoids run between
plates of cells
Path of Blood and
Bile in Hepatic
Lobule
Oxygen-poor blood from the digestive
tract is transported to the liver through
the hepatic portal vein.
It mixes with oxygen-rich blood from the
hepatic artery.
This blood filters through the hepatic
sinusoids
Hepatocytes adjust nutrient
concentrations, as the nutrients from
the digestive tract flow by
Bile produced by hepatocytes leaves the
liver through bile ducts
Liver Functions
Produces glycogen from glucose Converts some amino acids to other amino
Breaks down glycogen into glucose acids
Converts non-carbohydrates to glucose Stores glycogen, iron, and vitamins A, D, and
B12
Oxidizes fatty acids
Synthesizes lipoproteins, phospholipids, and
Phagocytizes damaged RBCs and foreign
cholesterol substances/antigens
Converts excess carbohydrates and proteins into fats Removes toxins, such as alcohol and certain
drugs from the blood
Deaminates amino acids
Forms urea Acts as blood reservoir

Synthesizes plasma proteins Role in digestion is to secrete bile

General
Function
Specific Function
Major
Function
Carbohydrate Polymerizes glucose to glycogen; breaks down glycogen to glucose;
metabolism converts noncarbohydrates to glucose

Lipid Oxidizes fatty acids; synthesizes lipoproteins, phospholipids, and

metabolism cholesterol; converts excess portions of carbohydrate molecules into

s of the
fat molecules

Protein Deaminates amino acids; forms urea; synthesizes plasma proteins;

metabolism converts certain amino acids into other amino acids

Storage
Blood filtering
Stores glycogen, vitamins A, D, and B12, iron, and blood
Removes damaged red blood cells and foreign substances by
phagocytosis
Liver
Detoxification Removes toxins from the blood
Secretion Produces and secretes bile
Composition of Bile
Bile is a yellowish-green liquid that hepatic cells continuously secrete
Components of bile:
◦ Water
◦ Bile salts:
◦ Produced from cholesterol
◦ Emulsify fats
◦ Only bile component that has a digestive function (act as fat emulsifying agents)
◦ Bile pigments: bilirubin and biliverdin, derived from hemoglobin breakdown
◦ Cholesterol
◦ Electrolytes
Clinical Application: Hepatitis
Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver
Many types, chronic or acute, vary in severity
Most common cause of hepatitis is one of several types of viruses
Some people have symptoms, and some do not (they can still be carriers)
Some forms are blood-borne
Some forms are transmitted by contact with food, body fluids, or objects contaminated with
feces that contain the virus
Antibiotics are not effective against viral hepatitis
Hepatitis C accounts for about half of all known cases of hepatitis
Gallbladder
Gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac on the
inferior surface of liver
It stores and concentrates bile
Cystic duct from gallbladder joins with
the common hepatic duct from the liver
to form common bile duct
Bile duct empties into the duodenum,
◦ Sphincter regulates release of bile into the
duodenum
Regulation of
Bile Release
Cholecystokinin, CCK, is released
from the duodenum in response
to fats entering the duodenum
◦ CCK stimulates contractions of the
gallbladder
◦ The bile is then released into the
duodenum
Hormone Source Function
Gastrin Gastric cells, in response to
food
Increases secretory activity of gastric
glands
Hormones
of the
Intestinal gastrin Cells of small intestine, in Increases secretory activity of gastric
response to chyme glands

Somatostatin Gastric cells Inhibits secretion of acid by parietal

cells

Intestinal
somatostatin
Intestinal wall cells, in response
to fats
Inhibits secretion of acid by parietal
cells Digestive
Tract
Cholecystokinin Intestinal wall cells, in response Decreases secretory activity of gastric
to proteins and fats in the small glands and inhibits gastric motility;
intestine stimulates pancreas to secrete fluid
with a high digestive enzyme

Secretin Cells in the duodenal wall, in Stimulates pancreas to secrete fluid

response to acidic chyme with a high bicarbonate ion
entering the small intestine concentration
Functions of Bile Salts
Bile salts aid digestive enzymes through emulsification:
◦ Break up of large fat globules into smaller droplets (like soap or detergent)
◦ Aid in fat digestion by increasing surface area accessible to the enzyme lipase

Bile salts also enhance absorption of fatty acids and cholesterol by forming micelles
◦ Help absorb fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K

Almost all bile salts are recycled

Small Intestine
The small intestine is a tubular organ that extends from the pyloric sphincter to the beginning of
the large intestine
Fills most of abdominal cavity
Receives chyme from stomach, and liver and pancreatic secretions
Completes digestion of the nutrients in chyme
Absorbs products of digestion
Transports the remaining residue to the large intestine
Parts of the
Small Intestine
Small intestine consists of 3 parts:
◦ Duodenum: shortest and most fixed portion of
small intestine
◦ Jejunum: middle portion, thicker and more active
than ileum
◦ Ileum: distal portion; contains Peyer’s patches
(lymph nodules)

Jejunum and ileum are suspended by double-layered

fold of peritoneum called a mesentery, which
transports blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves to
wall of intestine

Double fold of peritoneum, called the greater

omentum, drapes down from stomach, over the large
intestine and folds of small intestine
Mesentery and Greater Omentum
Structure of the Small Intestinal Wall
Tiny projections of the mucosa, intestinal villi, greatly increase the surface area for absorption of
digestive end products
Each villus consists of simple columnar epithelium with a core of connective tissue, with blood
vessels, a lacteal (lymphatic capillary), and nerve fibers
Free surfaces of epithelial cells contain microvilli, which also increase surface area for absorption
Intestinal glands/crypts of Lieberkühn are located between bases of villi
Plicae circulares are circular folds of mucosa, which also increase surface area
Structure of the Small Intestinal Wall
Intestinal Epithelium
Plicae
Circulares
Secretions of the Small Intestine
In addition to mucous-secreting goblet cells, there are many specialized mucus-secreting glands,
Brunner’s glands, that secrete a thick, alkaline mucus in response to certain stimuli
Intestinal glands secrete a watery fluid, that picks up digestion products, and transports them
into villi; and does not have digestive enzymes
Enzymes in the membranes of the microvilli:
◦ Peptidases: break down peptides into amino acids
◦ Sucrase, maltase, lactase: break down disaccharides into monosaccharides
◦ Lipase: breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol
Enzyme Source Digestive Action
Salivary Enzyme

Salivary amylase Salivary glands Begins carbohydrate digestion by breaking down starch and glycogen to
disaccharides

Gastric Enzymes

Pepsin Gastric glands Begins protein digestion Summary of

the Major
Gastric lipase Gastric glands Begins butterfat digestion

Pancreatic Enzymes

Pancreatic amylase Pancreas Breaks down starch and glycogen into disaccharides

Pancreatic lipase

Trypsin, chymotrypsin
Pancreas

Pancreas
Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol

Break down proteins or partially digested proteins into peptides Digestive

Enzymes
Carboxypeptidase Pancreas Breaks down peptides into amino acids

Nucleases Pancreas Break down nucleic acids into nucleotides

Intestinal Enzymes

Enterokinase Mucosal cells Converts trypsinogen into trypsin

Peptidase Mucosal cells Breaks down peptides into amino acids

Intestinal lipase Mucosal cells Breaks down fats into fatty acids and glycerol

Sucrase, maltase, lactase Mucosal cells Break down disaccharides into monosaccharides
Regulation of Small Intestinal Secretions
Mucus secretion occurs in response to mechanical stimulation, or presence of irritants such as
gastric juice
Contact with chyme stimulates Goblet cells to secrete mucus, and intestinal glands to secrete
watery fluid
Distention of the intestinal wall activates nerve plexuses in the wall of the small intestine
Distention also stimulates parasympathetic reflexes that trigger the release of intestinal enzymes
Absorption in the Small Intestine
Villi increase the surface area for absorption
Small intestine is most important absorbing organ of alimentary canal
Small intestine absorption is so effective that very little absorbable material reaches the organ’s
distal end
Carbohydrate digestion and absorption:
◦ Salivary and pancreatic amylase breaks down starch and glycogen into disaccharides
◦ Intestinal enzymes break down disaccharides into monosaccharides
◦ Monosaccharides are absorbed by facilitated diffusion and active transport into blood vessels in villi
Absorption in the Small Intestine
Protein digestion and absorption:
◦ Pepsin in the stomach breaks down proteins into polypeptides
◦ Pancreatic proteases (trypsin, chymotrypsin, etc.) break down proteins and polypeptides into smaller
peptides
◦ Intestinal peptidases break peptides into amino acids
◦ Amino acids are absorbed by active transport into blood vessels of villi
Absorption in the Small Intestine
Fat digestion and absorption:
◦ Fats are emulsified by bile salts
◦ Fats are digested mainly by enzymes from pancreas and small intestine
◦ Fats are digested into glycerol and fatty acids
◦ Fatty acids and glycerol are absorbed by a process involving several steps; absorbed into blood or
lymphatic capillaries (lacteals)

Lipids are transported in the blood as chylomicrons, lipoproteins, and fatty acids
◦ In the absorptive state, many chylomicrons are present in the blood
◦ In the postabsorptive state, 95% of lipids are in the form of lipoproteins
◦ Lipoproteins
◦ Formed in the liver
◦ Consist of lipids and protein
◦ VLDL, LDL vs HDL
Fat Absorption
Nutrient Absorption Mechanism Means of Circulation
Monosaccharides Facilitated diffusion and active transport Blood in capillaries
Amino acids Active transport Blood in capillaries
Fatty acids and glycerol Facilitated diffusion of glycerol; diffusion of fatty acids into cells or blood
capillaries

(a) Most fatty acids are resynthesized into fats and incorporated in Lymph in lacteals
chylomicrons

(b) Some fatty acids with relatively short carbon chains are absorbed Blood in capillaries
without being changed back into fats

Electrolytes Diffusion and active transport Blood in capillaries

Water Osmosis Blood in capillaries

Intestinal Absorption of Nutrients

Movements of the Small Intestine
Chyme is moved through the small intestine via:
◦ Peristalsis: wave-like pushing movements that propel chyme in proper direction down the small
intestine
◦ Segmentation: ring-like contractions that move chyme back and forth (mixing movement)

Parasympathetic impulses stimulate both mixing and peristaltic movements, and sympathetic
impulses inhibit them
If small intestine becomes over distended or irritated, a strong peristaltic rush may sweep
contents quickly into large intestine, resulting in diarrhea
Ileocecal sphincter joins ileum of small intestine to cecum of large intestine, and helps regulate
flow of chyme
Large Intestine
Named because the diameter is greater than that of small intestine
At distal end, opens to outside of body through the anus
Functions:
◦ Absorbs som water and electrolytes
◦ Reabsorbs and recycles water and digestive secretions
◦ Forms and stores feces
Parts of the Large Intestine
Cecum:
◦ Pouch that forms at beginning of large intestine
◦ Appendix is attached to cecum
◦ Lymph nodules in the appendix function in the immune response

Colon:
◦ Ascending, transverse, descending, and sigmoid portions

Rectum:
◦ Extends from sigmoid colon to anal canal

Anal canal:
◦ Last 2.5 – 4 cm of large intestine; opens to outside as anus
◦ Internal and external anal sphincters guard anus
Parts of
the Large
Intestine
Structure of the Rectum and Anal Canal
Structure of the
Large Intestinal Wall
Wall of large intestine has same 4
layers as other tubular organs of
the alimentary canal
Wall of large intestine does not
have villi and plicae circulares
Longitudinal muscle is organized
into 3 bands, taeniae coli, that run
down entire length of colon
Band creates pouches called
haustra, which help form feces
Functions of the
Large Intestine
Has little or no digestive function
Contains tubular glands containing Goblet cells;
secrete mucus, the only significant secretion of
the large intestine
Absorbs water (about 90% of water that enters
it) and electrolytes
Houses intestinal flora, which break down
contents such as cellulose, and produce vitamins
K, B12, thiamine
Forms feces, and carriers out defecation
Movements of the Large Intestine
Movements of the large intestine are similar to those of the small intestine
They are slower and less frequent than those of the small intestine
Movements:
◦ Mixing movements
◦ Peristalsis: 2-3 times/day

Peristaltic waves produce strong mass movements, which usually follow meals
The defecation reflex relaxes the internal anal reflex and then the external anal reflex
◦ The internal anal sphincter is composed of smooth muscle
◦ Involuntary control
◦ The external anal sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle
◦ Voluntary control
Feces
Feces are composed of materials not digested or absorbed, and also contain:
◦ Water (~75% of feces)
◦ Electrolytes
◦ Mucus
◦ Bacteria
◦ Bile pigments, which provide the color, after bacterial alteration

The pungent odor is produced by bacterial compounds, including:

◦ Phenol
◦ Hydrogen sulfide
◦ Indole
◦ Skatole
◦ Ammonia