LYMPHATIC SYSTEM Chapter 16

AND IMMUNITY
OBJECTIVES
1. Describe the functions of the lymphatic vessels
2. Identify and describe the parts of the major lymphatic pathways
3. Distinguish between the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct
INTRODUCTION
Lymphatic system:
 A vast collection of cells and biochemical that travel in lymphatic vessels
 Contains a network of vessels that assist in circulating fluids
 Closely associated with the cardiovascular system

3 functions of the lymphatic system:

 Transport excess fluid away from the interstitial spaces, and returns it to the bloodstream
 Absorbs lipids from digestive system, and transports them to the bloodstream
 Defends the body against diseases

The term “immune system” refers to the fact that many cells of the lymphatic system
provide both defense against disease and permanent immunity against future
infections
LYMPHATIC PATHWAYS
Lymphatic capillaries  lymphatic vessels 
lymph nodes  larger lymphatic vessels 
lymphatic trunks  lymphatic collecting ducts
 subclavian veins in thorax
Lymphatic system carries excess fluid from
interstitial spaces back to bloodstream
Lacteals are lymphatic capillaries that absorb
fats, and transport them to the blood
LYMPHATIC
CAPILLARIES
Microscopic, closed-ended tubes.
Networks parallel blood capillaries
throughout the body.
Thin-walled.
Walls formed from simple
squamous epithelium.
Tissue (interstitial) fluid enters
lymphatic capillaries; fluid is now
called lymph.
Merge into lymphatic vessels.
LYMPHATIC VESSELS
Walls are similar to veins, but thinner.
Contain one-way valves.
Larger vessels lead to lymph nodes and
then to larger lymphatic trunks.
LYMPHATIC TRUNKS AND
COLLECTING DUCTS
Lymphatic trunks:
 Drain lymph from lymphatic vessels.

Lymphatic collecting ducts:

 Drain lymph from trunks.
 Thoracic duct (large) and right lymphatic duct
(small).
LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE
Thoracic duct drains a much larger
portion of body than right lymphatic
duct.
LYMPHATIC DRAINAGE
Breast drains to axillary lymph nodes;
cancer surgery can disrupt lymphatic
flow and cause edema.
SUMMARY OF
LYMPHATIC PATHWAY
The large thoracic duct drains into the left
subclavian vein near its junction with the left
jugular vein, and the small right lymphatic duct
drains into the right subclavian vein.
OBJECTIVES
1. Describe how tissue fluid and lymph form, and explain the
function of lymph
2. Explain how lymphatic circulation is maintained, and describe the
consequences of lymphatic obstructions
3. Know the factors that promote lymph flow
TISSUE FLUID AND LYMPH
Lymph is tissue fluid that has entered a lymphatic capillary.
Lymph formation depends on tissue fluid formation.
TISSUE FLUID FORMATION
Capillary blood pressure filters water and small molecules from the plasma
The resulting tissue fluid:
 Has about the same composition as blood plasma.
 Contains water and dissolved nutrients, gases, hormones.
 Exception: tissue fluid does not contain large plasma proteins.

Plasma proteins remain in blood plasma, to maintain osmotic pressure necessary to

draw fluid back into blood capillaries.
LYMPH FORMATION
Filtration from the plasma normally exceeds reabsorption, leading to the net
formation of tissue fluid.
This increases the tissue fluid hydrostatic pressure within interstitial spaces, forcing
fluid into lymphatic capillaries, and forming lymph.
This process prevents accumulation of excess tissue fluid or edema.
LYMPH FLOW
Muscle activity influences the movement of lymph through the lymphatic vessels:
1. Contraction of skeletal muscles compresses lymphatic vessels, moving the lymph.
2. Respiratory process creates low pressure in thorax, and high pressure in abdomen during
inspiration; sends lymph from abdomen to thorax.
3. Smooth muscle in the larger lymphatic vessel contracts to aid in flow of lymph.

Valves in lymphatic vessels prevent backflow

Lymphatic flow is highest during physical exercise
LYMPH FUNCTION
Roles of lymphatic capillaries:
 Absorption of dietary fats
 Delivery of absorbed fats to the bloodstream
 Return of small proteins filtered by blood
capillaries to bloodstream
 Collection of excess interstitial fluid
 Delivery of excess fluid to the bloodstream
 Delivery of foreign particles to the lymph
nodes

Flap-like valves between cells of

lymphatic capillaries allow easy entry
of tissue fluid
OBJECTIVE
S
1. Describe a lymph node and
its major functions
2. Discuss the locations and
functions of the thymus and
spleen
LYMPHATIC TISSUES AND
LYMPHATIC ORGANS
Lymphatic tissue contains several cell types, including lymphocytes and
macrophages
Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT):
 Unencapsulated lymphatic tissue of the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts:
 Tonsils and appendix are composed of lymphatic nodules (compact masses of lymphatic tissue)
 Peyer’s patches are aggregates of lymphatic nodules found in ileum (distal part of small intestine)

Lymphatic organs:
 Consists of encapsulated lymphatic tissue
 Lymph nodes, thymus, spleen
LYMPH
NODES
Lymph nodes are usually bean-
shaped, <2.5 cm long
Located along lymphatic vessels;
filter pathogens from lymph
Contain lymphocytes to attack
viruses, bacteria, and parasitic cells
Contain macrophages to engulf
and destroy foreign substances,
damaged cells, and cellular debris
LYMPH NODES
LOCATIONS OF LYMPH NODES
Lymph nodes are found in groups or chains
along the paths of the larger lymphatic
vessels throughout the body.
Not found in central nervous system.
Major locations of lymph nodes:
 Cervical region
 Axillary region
 Supratrochlear region
 Inguinal region
 Pelvic cavity
 Abdominal cavity
 Thoracic cavity
FUNCTIONS OF LYMPH NODES
2 primary functions of lymph nodes:
 Filter potentially harmful particles from the lymph
 Immune surveillance: monitor body fluids via macrophages and lymphocytes

Along with the red bone marrow, the lymph nodes are centers for lymphocyte
production
Lymphocytes attack various pathogens in lymph nodes
Macrophages engulf and digest foreign substances, damaged cells, debris
THYMUS
Soft, bilobed gland in mediastinum.
Most cells are inactive; called
thymocytes.
 Some cells mature into functional T cells

T lymphocytes (T cells), which leave

thymus to provide immunity.
 Thymosins: hormones produced in thymus;
stimulate T cell maturation
THYMUS GLAND
Large in infancy and early childhood.
Shrinks at puberty; small in an adult
In elderly, lymphatic tissue is replaced
by adipose & other connective tissues.
SPLEEN
Largest lymphatic organ
Located in the upper left part of
abdominal cavity
Resembles large lymph node
Contains venous sinuses filled with blood
 Contains 2 tissue types:
 White pulp: lymphocytes
 Red pulp: red blood cells, lymphocytes and macrophages

Filters blood, like lymph nodes filter

lymph
 MAJOR ORGANS OF THE
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Organ Location Function

Lymph nodes In groups or chains along the paths Filter foreign particles and debris from lymph; house
of larger lymphatic vessels lymphocytes that destroy foreign particles in lymph;
house macrophages that engulf and destroy foreign
particles and cellular debris carried in lymph

Thymus In the mediastinum posterior to the
upper portion of the body of the
sternum
Spleen In the upper left portion of the
abdominal cavity, inferior to the
diaphragm and posterior and lateral
to the stomach
Houses lymphocytes; differentiates thymocytes into T
lymphocytes
Houses macrophages that remove foreign particles,
damaged red blood cells, and cellular debris from the
blood; contains lymphocytes
 1. Distinguish between innate (nonspecific) defenses
and adaptive (specific) defenses
2. List seven innate body defense mechanisms, and
describe the action of each mechanism

OBJECTIV 3. Explain how two major types of lymphocytes are

formed and activated and how they function in
ES immune mechanisms
4. Discuss the actions of the five types of antibodies
5. Distinguish between primary and secondary
immune responses
6. Distinguish between active and passive immunity
BODY DEFENSE AGAINST
INFECTION
Lymphatic system defends body against Innate (nonspecific) defenses:
infection by pathogens  General defenses
Pathogens:  Protect against many types of pathogens
 Disease-causing agents
 Bacteria, viruses, complex microorganisms like Adaptive (specific) defenses:
protozoa, and spores of multicellular organisms like  Known as immunity
fungi  More specific and precise, targeting specific
The presence and multiplication of a antigens
pathogen in the body, if unchecked may  Carried out by lymphocytes that recognize
cause an infection certain foreign molecules

The body can prevent entry of pathogens or

destroy them with various defense
mechanisms
TYPES OF INNATE
(NONSPECIFIC) DEFENSES
Type Description
Species A species is resistant to certain diseases to which other species are susceptible.
resistance
Mechanical Unbroken skin and mucous membranes prevent the entrance of some infectious agents. Fluids
barriers wash away microorganisms before they can firmly attach to tissues.
Inflammation Enzymes in various body fluids kill pathogens. pH extremes and high salt concentration also
*heat harm pathogens. Interferons induce production of other proteins that block reproduction of
*pain viruses, stimulate phagocytosis, and enhance the activity of cells such that they resist infection
*Redness and the growth of tumors. Defensins damage bacterial cell walls and membranes. Collectins
*Swelling bind to microbes. Complement stimulates inflammation, attracts phagocytes, and enhances
phagocytosis.

Chemical Distinct type of lymphocyte that secretes perforins that lyse virus-infected cells and cancer
barriers cells.
Natural killer A tissue response to injury that helps prevent the spread of infectious agents into nearby
cells tissues.
Phagocytosis Neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages engulf and destroy foreign particles and cells.
Fever Elevated body temperature indirectly inhibits microbial growth and increases phagocytic
activity
INNATE DEFENSES: SPECIES
RESISTANCE
Refers to fact that certain species are resistant to diseases that affect other species
Certain species do not have the appropriate temperature or chemical environment for
a particular pathogen to survive and proliferate
INNATE DEFENSE:
MECHANICAL BARRIERS
Skin and mucous membranes form mechanical barriers
Prevent entrance of pathogens
Considered the first line of defense (all other non-specific defenses are part of the
second line of defense)
Examples:
 As epidermis sloughs off, removes superficial bacteria
 Ciliated epithelium in respiratory tract traps and sweeps away pathogens
 Hair traps pathogens
 Tears, saliva and urine wash away microorganisms
INNATE DEFENSES:
CHEMICAL BARRIERS
Enzymes
 Examples: Pepsin in gastric juice and lysozyme in tears destroy microorganisms

Interferons
 Blocks viral replication, act against growth of tumors, stimulate phagocytosis

Defensins
 Peptides produced by neutrophils and other granulocytes
 Penetrate microbial cell membranes or walls and cause lysis

Collectins
 Proteins that protect against many bacteria, yeast and some viruses

Complement
 Group of proteins in plasma and other body fluids that stimulates inflammation, attracts phagocytes and enhances
phagocytosis.
INNATE DEFENSES: NATURAL
KILLER (NK) CELLS
NK cells are a small population of lymphocytes
Very different from B-cells and T-cells that provide adaptive defenses.
Defend against viruses and cancer cells by secreting cytolytic substances called
perforins, that lyse cell membrane
NK cells also enhance inflammation
MAJOR ACTIONS OF AN
INFLAMMATION RESPONSE
Inflammation produces local redness,
swelling, heat, and pain
A process that walls off infection site,
and inhibits spread of infection
INNATE DEFENSE:
PHAGOCYTOSIS
Removes foreign particles from the lymph
Phagocytes in the blood vessels and the tissues of the spleen, liver or bone marrow
remove particles from blood
The most active phagocytic cells are neutrophils and monocytes
Positive chemotaxis
 Chemicals from damaged tissue attract these phagocytic cells to the injury

Monocytes that leave the blood become macrophages, which can be free or fixed in
tissues
INNATE DEFENSES: FEVER
A fever begins when a viral or bacterial infection stimulates lymphocytes to
proliferate, producing cells that secrete a substance called interleukin-1 (IL-1) which
raises thermoregulatory set point
 IL-1 is also called endogenous pyrogen (fire maker from within)

Elevated body temperature indirectly inhibits microbial growth; causes liver and
spleen to take up iron, making it unavailable for bacteria and fungi to use in their
normal metabolism
High body temperature also increases phagocytic activity
ADAPTIVE (SPECIFIC)
DEFENSES
Third line of defense is resistance to particular pathogens or to their toxins or
metabolic by-products
 Based on the ability to distinguish between “self” and “non-self” antigens

Antigens: non-self molecules that can elicit an immune response

Adaptive responses are carried out by lymphocytes and macrophages that can
recognize specific antigens
2 types of adaptive defenses:
 Cellular immune response (performed by immune cells)
 Humoral immune response (performed by antibodies)
LINES OF DEFENSE AGAINST
PATHOGENS
ANTIGENS
Receptors on the surface of lymphocytes enable the cells to recognize non-self
antigens
Antigens may be:
 Proteins
 Polysaccharides
 Glycoproteins
 Glycolipids
LYMPHOCYTE ORIGINS
Red bone marrow releases unspecialized
lymphocyte precursors into blood.
Half of these cells settle in thymus,
specialize, and are then released.
Other half of cells differentiate in red
bone marrow and are then released.
T lymphocytes (T cells, thymus-
derived lymphocytes):
 Specialize in thymus
 Some T cells settle in lymphatic organs, such as
lymph nodes, thoracic duct, white pulp of
spleen
B lymphocytes (B cells):
 After release from bone marrow, make up 20-
30% of lymphocytes in blood
 Abundant in lymph nodes, spleen, bone
marrow, intestinal lining
LYMPHOCYTE ORIGINS
COMPARISON OF T CELLS AND
BCharacteristic
CELLS T Cells B Cells
Origin of undifferentiated Red bone marrow
cell
Site of differentiation Thymus
Primary locations Lymphatic tissues, 70% to
80% of the circulating
lymphocytes in blood
Primary functions Provide cellular immune
response in which T cells
interact directly with the
antigens or antigen-bearing
agents, to destroy them
Red bone marrow
Red bone marrow
Lymphatic tissues, 20% to
30% of the circulating
lymphocytes in blood
Provide humoral immune
response in which B cells
interact indirectly,
producing antibodies that
destroy the antigens or
antigen-bearing agents
T CELLS AND THE CELLULAR
IMMUNE RESPONSE
A lymphocyte must be activated before it can respond to an antigen
T cell activation requires that antigenic fragments be attached to antigen-presenting cell (APC), such
as macrophages, B cells, and several other types
APC phagocytizes antigen, digests it, and displays antigenic fragments on its own cell membrane,
bound to protein that is part of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)
When specific T cell encounters an APC displaying antigenic fragments bound to MHC proteins, it
can now recognize antigen as foreign; T cell is now activated
T cells can secrete polypeptides called cytokines, which enhance some cellular responses to antigens
Types of specialized T cells:
 Helper T cells: activate other cells; help B cells produce antibodies
 Cytotoxic T cells: attack virally-infected or cancerous cells
 Memory T cells: provide future immune protection
TYPES OF CYTOKINES
Cytokine Function
Colony-stimulating factors Stimulate bone marrow to produce lymphocytes

Interferons Block viral replication, stimulate macrophages to engulf

viruses, stimulate B cells to produce antibodies, attack
cancer cells

Interleukins Control lymphocyte differentiation and proliferation

Tumor necrosis factor Stops tumor growth, releases growth factors, causes fever
that accompanies bacterial infection, stimulates
lymphocyte differentiation
B CELLS AND THE HUMORAL
IMMUNE RESPONSE
B cells can be activated when an antigen fits the shape of their receptors, and binds
to them
Further B cell activation requires cytokines from T cells
Once proper cytokines are released from helper T cells, B cells respond by
proliferating, enlarging clone of identical cells
 Some new B cells become memory B cells, which provide future immunity
 Other new B cells differentiate into plasma cells, which produce and secrete large globular proteins
called antibodies or immunoglobulins

Since antibodies are carried by the blood (a body fluid) to the infection site, this type
of response is called the humoral immune response, or the antibody-mediated
immune response
T CELL AND B CELL
ACTIVATION
B cells and T cells both require proper
activation. Helper T cells secrete
cytokines to activate B cells to
proliferate.
B CELL
PROLIFERATION
B cell proliferation produces both
dormant memory B cells and
antibody-secreting plasma cells
STEPS IN ANTIBODY
PRODUCTION
B Cell Activities
1. Antigen-bearing agents enter tissues.
2. B cell encounters an antigen that fits its antigen receptors.
3. Either alone or more often in conjunction with helper T cells, the B cell is activated. The B cell
proliferates, enlarging its clone.
4. Some of the newly formed B cells differentiate further to become plasma cells.
5. Plasma cells synthesize and secrete antibodies whose molecular structure is similar to the
activated B cell’s antigen receptors

T Cell Activities
1. Antigen-bearing agents enter tissues
2. An accessory cell, such as a macrophage, phagocytizes the antigen-bearing agent, and the macrophage’s
lysosomes digest the agent.
3. Antigens from the digested antigen-bearing agents are displayed on the membrane of the accessory cell.
4. Helper T cell becomes activated when it encounters a displayed antigen that fits its antigen receptors.
5. Activated helper T cell releases cytokines when it encounters a B cell that has previously combined with an
identical antigen-bearing agent.
6. Cytokines stimulate the B cell to proliferate, enlarging its clone.
7. Some of the newly formed B cells give rise to cells that differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells.
ANTIBODY MOLECULES
Globular proteins.
Make up the gamma globulin fraction of
plasma proteins.
Also called immunoglobulins.
Y-shaped proteins, composed of 4 amino
acid chains: 2 heavy and 2 light chains.
Each type of antibody has unique amino
acid sequence and conformation,
making it specific for its antigen.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MAJOR
IMMUNOGLOBULINS
There are 5 major types of antibodies or
immunoglobulins (Ig):
 IgG: 80% of antibodies
 IgA: 13% of antibodies
 IgM: 6% of antibodies
 IgD: <1% of antibodies
 IgE: <1% of antibodies
ACTIONS OF ANTIBODIES
Antibodies react to antigens in 3 ways:
 Direct attack on antigens
 Activation of complement
 Stimulation of local change, inflammation, to
help prevent spread of infection
IMMUNE RESPONSE
Primary immune response
 Produced by first encounter with antigen
 First antibodies appear in 5-10 days, and
remain for several weeks
 Memory B cells are also produced
Secondary immune response
 Subsequent exposure to antigen produces high
concentration of antibodies in 1-2 days
 Antibodies remain for months or years
 Memory B cells live for many years
PRACTICAL CLASSIFICATION
OF IMMUNITY
Naturally acquired Passive immunity
 Obtained by a natural process  Temporary immunity obtained via antibodies
 Getting and recovering from the disease  No antigen exposure
 Given from mother to fetus or infant
 No immune response is evoked by person’s
immune system
Artificially acquired
 Obtained by an injected, instead of a natural Active immunity
process  Permanent immunity obtained via antigen
contact
 Immune response is evoked
 Memory B cells are produced
 PRACTICAL CLASSIFICATION
OF IMMUNITY
Type Mechanism Result
Naturally acquired active Exposure to live pathogens Stimulation of an immune
immunity response with symptoms of a
disease
Artificially acquired Exposure to a vaccine containing Stimulation of an immune
active immunity weakened or dead pathogens or their response without symptoms of a
components disease
Naturally acquired Antibodies passed to fetus from Short-term immunity for
passive immunity pregnant woman with active immunity newborn without stimulating an
or to newborn through colostrum or immune response
breast milk from a woman with active
immunity
Artificially acquired Injection of antiserum containing Short-term immunity without
passive immunity specific antibodies or antitoxin stimulating an immune response
AUTOIMMUNITY
An attack by the immune system against own tissues
The immune system fails to distinguish “self” from “non-self”, and the body
produces antibodies called autoantibodies
Also, cytotoxic T cells attack the body’s tissues and organs
Various autoimmune disorders affect different types of cells
There are several theories concerning the cause(s) of autoimmune disorders, but no
single cause has been established
 AUTOIMMUNE
Disorder Symptoms
DISORDERS
Antibodies Against
Glomerulonephritis Lower back pain Kidney cell antigens that resemble streptococcal
bacteria antigens
Graves disease Restlessness, weight loss, irritability, Thyroid gland antigens near thyroid-stimulating
increased heart rate and blood pressure hormone receptor, causing overactivity
Type I diabetes mellitus Thirst, hunger, weakness, emaciation Pancreatic beta cells
Hemolytic anemia Fatigue and weakness Red blood cells
Multiple sclerosis Weakness, incoordination, speech Myelin in peripheral nerves and in the white matter
disturbances, visual complaints of the central nervous system
Myasthenia gravis Muscle weakness Receptors for neurotransmitters on skeletal muscle

Pernicious anemia Fatigue and weakness Binding site for vitamin B on cells lining stomach
Rheumatic fever Weakness, shortness of breath Heart valve cell antigens that resemble
streptococcal bacteria antigens
Rheumatoid arthritis Joint pain and deformity Cells lining joints
Systemic lupus Red rash on face, prolonged fever, Connective tissue
erythematosus weakness, kidney damage, joint pain
Ulcerative colitis Lower abdominal pain Colon cells
LIFE-SPAN CHANGES
Immune system function declines early in life, as the thymus gland shrinks (only 25% as
powerful as it once was)
There is a higher risk of infection and cancer
T cell numbers decrease very slightly, and B cell numbers do not change, but activity
level declines in both types of lymphocytes
Antibody response to antigens becomes slower
IgA and IgG antibodies increase
IgM and IgE antibodies decrease
Elderly may not be candidates for certain medical treatments that suppresses immunity,
such as chemotherapy
IMMUNITY BREAKDOWN:
HIV/AIDS
HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus):
 A virus that breaks down immune system function
 May stay silent for years, and then progress to AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome); then
opportunistic infections begin
 HIV attacks macrophages and then Helper T cells
 When Helper T cell numbers decline, B cells cannot produce antibodies, due to lack of cytokine
activation
 Later, HIV variants affect Cytotoxic T cells too
 Person dies from loss of immune response against pathogens, cancers
 Modes of transmission: sexual contact, contaminated needles, birth or milk from infected mother,
receiving infected blood or tissues from donor
QUESTIONS?