Data Analysis and Interpretation

After identifying a research topic, doing a literature background research,

establishing the focus problem, designing a research plan and collecting sufficient
data, the next step in the research process is data analysis and interpretation,
which precedes reporting of research.
 Data analysis is, therefore, a process that involves examining, and molding
collected data for interpretation to discover relevant information, draw or
propose conclusions and support decision-making to solve a research problem. 
Data analysis also serves as a reference for future data collection and other
research activities. During data analysis (Bala, 2005):
• data collected is transformed into information and knowledge about a research
performed
• relationships between variables are explored
• meanings are identified and information is interpreted.
Presenting Data
• Be sure to mention all relevant information
• Do not omit the findings if they fail to support your predictions.
• Do not include the raw data in the results section.
• You should include summary tables or graphs
• Create the tables and figures and then organize them in a logical way. Next, write the
summary text to support your illustrative materials.
• Do not present the same data twice in your illustrative materials.
• Don’t ignore negative results
• Results that do not solve your problem can be just as informative as results that do
• Focus on being concise and objective
• The results section should be written in the past tense.
Summarising Data
• Tables
o Simplest way to summarize data
o Data are presented as absolute numbers or percentages

• Charts and graphs

o Visual representation of data
o Data are presented as absolute numbers or percentages
Basic guide when summarizing data
• Ensure the graph has a title
• Label the components of your graph
• Indicate source of data with the date
• Provide the number of observation
• Add footnote if more information is needed
Presenting data
• Charts and graphs are used to portray:
Trends, relationships and comparisons
It is most informative, simple and self-explanatory

1. Bar graph: comparisons, categories of data

2. Pie graph: shows percentages or proportional share
3. Line graph: display trends over time
4. Scatter plot
5. Histogram
Interpreting of research data
• Adequacy of Research Design, Methodology, Measurement and Analysis
o Most important, the design, methods of observation, measurement, and statistical analysis must all be
appropriate to the research problem.
• Negative and inconclusive Results
o When results are positive, when the data support the hypotheses, one interprets the data along the lines of the
theory and the reasoning behind the hypotheses.
o If it can be repeated, then the evidence of adequacy is even more convincing.
o If the methodology, the measurement, and the analysis are adequate, then the negative results can be definite
contributions to scientific advancement.
• Unhypothesized relations and unanticipated findings
o The unpredicted relation may be an important key to a deeper understanding of the theory.
o For example, positive reinforcement strengthens the response tendencies.
o Unpredicted and unexpected findings must be treated with more suspicion than predicted and expected findings.
o Before being accepted, they should be substantiated in independent research in which they are specially
predicted and tested.
• Proof, probability and interpretation
Effective Data Analysis
• Keeping your eye on the main game
• Managing your data
• Engaging in the actual process of quantitative and/or qualitative
analysis
• Presenting your data
• Drawing meaningful and logical conclusions.
Analysis should be approached as a critical, reflective and iterative
process that cycles between data and an overarching research
framework that keeps the big picture in mind.
Managing Data
• Regardless of data type, managing your data involves
• Familiarising yourself with appropriate software
• Developing a data management system
• Systematically organizing and screening your data
• Entering the data into a program
• And finally ‘cleaning’ your data
Data types
• Data collected has a certain level of measurements which initially
influences the analysis. The identification of a particular level of
measurement is the usually the first step in quantitative data analysis.
The four levels of measurements include (Yamashita & Espinosa,
2015):
• Cause and effect (dependant or independent)
• Measurement scales (nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio)
 Statistics
Descriptive Statistic Inferential Statistics
• Used to summarize the basic • Allows researchers to assess their
feature of a data set through ability to draw conclusions that
• Measure of central tendency
extent beyond the immediate data
(mean, mode and median) e.g.
• If a sample represents the population
• Dispersion (range, quartiles,
variance and standard deviation) • If there are differences between two
or more groups
• Distribution (skewness and • If there are changes over time
Selecting kurtosis)
Statistical Tests
Relies on • If there is a relationship between two
• Knowing the nature of your variables or more variables
• Their scales of measurement
• Their distribution shape
• Types of question you want to ask
Presenting Quantitative and Qualitative Data
Analysis