Taxonomy of culture

What is culture?
 Sir Edward Tylor’s definition in 1871 (first
use of this term):
“that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom,
and any other capabilities and habits acquired
by man as a member of society”
 Kroeber and Kluckhohn (1952)

Culture consists of patterns, explicit and implicit,

of and for behavior acquired and transmitted by
symbols, constituting the distinctive achievement
of human groups, including their embodiment in
artifacts; the essential core of culture consists of
traditional (i.e. historically derived and selected)
ideas and especially their attached values; culture
systems may, on the one hand, be considered as
products of action, on the other as conditioning
elements of further action.
 John Bodley (1994): Diverse Definitions

Culture consists of everything on a list of topics, or categories, such

Topical:
as social organization, religion, or economy
Culture is social heritage, or tradition, that is passed on to future
Historical:
generations
Behavioral: Culture is shared, learned human behavior, a way of life
Normative: Culture is ideals, values, or rules for living
Culture is the way humans solve problems of adapting to the
Functional:
environment or living together
Culture is a complex of ideas, or learned habits, that inhibit
Mental:
impulses and distinguish people from animals
Culture consists of patterned and interrelated ideas, symbols, or
Structural:
behaviors
Culture is based on arbitrarily assigned meanings that are shared by
Symbolic:
a society
 Edward T. Hall's Model
High-context cultures Low-context cultures
 Long-lasting  Shorter relationships
relationships  Less dependent on
 Exploiting context context
 Spoken agreements  Written agreements
 Insiders and outsiders  Insiders and outsiders
clearly distinguished less clearly distinguished
 Cultural patterns  Cultural patterns change
ingrained, slow change faster
 Cultural Classification--Hall
 Low-Context Cultures - What Is Said Is More
Important Than How or Where It Is Said
 U.S.
 Germany
 High-Context cultures - What Is Said and How or
Where It is Said Are Significant
 Asia
 Latin America
 Middle East
Low-context in business

Business before friendship

Credibility through expertise &

performance
Agreements by legal contract

Negotiations efficient
High-context in business

No business without friendship

Credibility through
relationships
Agreements founded on trust

Negotiations slow & ritualistic

 High and Low Context Cultures
Factors / High Low
Dimensions Context Context
Lawyers Less important Very important

A person’s word Is his or her bond Get it in writing

Responsibility for Taken by Pushed to

organizational error top level lowest level

Negotiations Lengthy Proceed quickly

Examples: Japan U.S.A.

Middle East Northern Europe