Lecture no.

What are the Principles of

Correct Thinking?

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 Sentence
• A set of words expressing a statement, a
question or an order, usually containing a
subject and a verb.
• In written English sentences begin with a
capital letter and end with a full stop/period
(.), a question mark (?) or an exclamation
mark/exclamation point (!).

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 Subject
• A noun, noun phrase or pronoun representing
the person or thing that performs the action
of the verb (I in I sat down.), about which
something is stated (the house in the house is
very old) or, in a passive sentence, that is
affected by the action of the verb (the
tree in the tree was blown down in the storm).

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 Predicate
• A part of a sentence containing a verb that makes
a statement about the subject of the verb. Or
Something that is affirmed or denied of the
subject in a proposition in logic.
• Examples:
• John went home.
• He lives in Italy.
• I have been studying for hours.

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 Proposition
• What is typically asserted by a declarative sentence, but not the
sentence itself. Every statement must be either true or false,
although the truth or falsity of a given statement may be unknown.
• Examples:
• ‫( بارش ہورہی ہے۔‬Urdu)
• It is raining. (English)
• Está lloviendo. (Spanish)
• Il pleut. (French)
• Es regnet. (German)

• Truth-value:
Truth or falsity of a given proposition or statement. 

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• Simple proposition:
A proposition which is making only one
assertion.
• Example:
I am reading.
• Compound proposition:
A proposition which contains two or more
simple propositions.
• Example:
If you work hard then you will succeed.

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 Disjunctive (Alternative) Proposition

• A type of compound proposition; if true, at

least one of the component propositions must
be true.
• Example:
The ball will be either spherical or elliptical.

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Hypothetical (Conditional) Proposition

• A type of compound proposition; it is false

only when the antecedent is true and the
consequent is false.
• Example:
• If you work hard then you will succeed.

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 Argument
• An argument is any group of propositions of
which one is claimed to follow from the
others, which are regarded as providing
support or grounds for the truth of that one.
• Inference:
A process by which one proposition is arrived
at and affirmed on the basis of some other
proposition or propositions.

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• Premise:
In an argument, the propositions upon which
inference is based; the propositions that are claimed
to provide grounds or reasons for the conclusion.
• Conclusion:
In any argument, the proposition to which the other
propositions in the argument are claimed to give
support, or for which they are given as reasons.
• Example:
“All men are mortal. (Premise)
Ali is a man. (Premise)
Therefore Ali is mortal. (Conclusion)”

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 Premise Indicators
• since • as indicated by
• because • the reason is that
• for • for the reason that
• as • may be inferred from
• follows from • may be derived from
• as shown by • may be deduced from
• inasmuch as • in view of the fact that

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 Conclusion Indicators
• therefore • for these reasons
• hence • it follows that
• so • I conclude that
• accordingly • which shows that
• in consequence • which means that
• consequently • which entails that
• proves that • which implies that
• as a result • which allows us to infer that
• for this reason • which points to the conclusion that
• thus • we may infer
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 Deductive Argument
• A deductive argument is one whose
conclusion is claimed to follow from its
premises with absolute necessity, this
necessity not being a matter of degree and
not depending in any way on whatever else
may be the case.
• A deductive argument can be valid or invalid.

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 Validity, Invalidity & Soundness
• A valid deductive argument is an argument in which it is
impossible for the conclusion to be false given that the
premises are true. In these arguments the conclusion
follows with strict necessity from the premises.
• An invalid deductive argument is a deductive argument
in which it is possible for the conclusion to be false given
that the premises are true. In these arguments the
conclusion does not follow with strict necessity from the
premises, even though it is claimed to.
• Soundness = validity + all true premises

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 EXAMPLES
I. Some valid arguments contain only true propositions—true
premises and a true conclusion:

• All mammals have lungs.

• All whales are mammals.
• Therefore all whales have lungs.

II. Some valid arguments contain only false propositions— false

premises and a false conclusion:

• All four-legged creatures have wings.

• All spiders have exactly four legs.
• Therefore all spiders have wings.
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III. Some invalid arguments contain only true propositions—all their
premises are true, and their conclusions are true as well:

• If I owned all the gold in Fort Knox, then I would be wealthy.

• I do not own all the gold in Fort Knox.
• Therefore I am not wealthy.

IV. Some invalid arguments contain only true premises and have a
false conclusion:

• If Bill Gates owned all the gold in Fort Knox, then Bill Gates would
be wealthy.
• Bill Gates does not own all the gold in Fort Knox.
• Therefore Bill Gates is not wealthy.

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V. Some valid arguments have false premises and a true
conclusion:

• All fishes are mammals.

• All whales are fishes.
• Therefore all whales are mammals.

VI. Some invalid arguments also have false premises and a true
conclusion:

• All mammals have wings.

• All whales have wings.
• Therefore all whales are mammals.

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VII. Some invalid arguments, of course, contain
all false propositions—false premises and a
false conclusion:

• All mammals have wings.

• All whales have wings.
• Therefore all mammals are whales.

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 Valid Invalid
True premises All flowers are plants. All flowers are plants.
All daisies are flowers. All daisies are plants.

True conclusion Therefore, all daisies are plants. Therefore, all daisies are flowers.
[sound]

True premises All roses are flowers.

All daisies are flowers.
None exist
False conclusion Therefore, all daisies are roses.
[unsound]

False premises All flowers are dogs. All dogs are flowers.
All poodles are flowers. All poodles are flowers.

True conclusion Therefore, all poodles are dogs. Therefore, all poodles are dogs.
[unsound] [unsound]

False premises All flowers are dogs. All roses are cats.
All tigers are flowers. All daisies are cats.

False conclusion Therefore, all tigers are dogs. Therefore, all daisies are roses.
[unsound] [unsound] 19
Premises Conclusion Validity

T T ?

T F Invalid

F T ?

F F ?
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 Inductive Argument
• An inductive argument is one whose
conclusion is claimed to follow from its
premises only with probability, this probability
being a matter of degree and dependent on
what else may be the case.
• An inductive arguments can be strong or
weak.
• Cogent = Strong + All true premises

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 Strong Weak

True premise Every previous U.S. president was older A few U.S. presidents were lawyers.
than 40.
Therefore, probably the next U.S.
Probably true Therefore, probably the next U.S. president will be older than 40.
conclusion president will be older than 40. [uncogent]
[cogent]

True premise A few U.S. presidents were unmarried.

Probably false None exist Therefore, probably the next U.S.
conclusion president will be unmarried.
[uncogent]

False premise Every previous U.S. president was a TV A few U.S. presidents were dentists.
debater.
Therefore, probably the next U.S.
Probably true Therefore, probably the next U.S. president will be a TV debater.
conclusion president will be a TV debater. [uncogent]
[uncogent]

False premise Every previous U.S. president died in A few U.S. presidents were dentists.
office.
Probably false Therefore, probably the next U.S.
conclusion Therefore, probably the next U.S. president will be a dentist.
president will die in office. [uncogent]
[uncogent]
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Premises Conclusion Strength

T Probably T ?

T Probably F Weak

F Probably T ?

F Probably F ?
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THE END

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