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Nervous System
Master control and communication system
Nervous System: Functions
Three overlapping functions
– Sensory receptors monitor changes inside and o
utside the body
Change – a stimulus
Gathered information – sensory input
– CNS Processes and interprets sensory input
Makes decisions – integration
Integration
– interpretation of sensory sig
nals within processing cente
rs
Motor output
– conduction of signals to effe
ctor cells (i.e. muscles, glan
d cells)
The Nervous System
• Components
– Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory receptors
• Responsible for
– Sensory perceptions, mental activities,
stimulating muscle movements, secretions of
many glands
• Subdivisions
– Central nervous system (CNS)
– Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Central Nervous System
• Consists of
– Brain
– Spinal cord
• Brain and spinal
cord
– Continuous with
each other
Peripheral Nervous System
• Two subcategories
– Sensory or afferent
– Motor or efferent
• Divisions
– Somatic nervous
system
– Autonomic nervous
system (ANS)
» Sympathetic
» Parasympathetic
Basic Divisions of the Nervous
System: PNS
Peripheral nervous s
ystem (PNS)
– Outside the CNS
– Nerves extending fr
om brain and spinal
cord
Cranial nerves
Spinal nerves
– Link all regions of t
he body to the CNS
Nervous System Organization
Sensory Input and Motor Outp
ut
Sensory signals picked up by sensory recept
ors
– Carried by afferent nerve fibers of PNS to the C
NS
Motor signals are carried away from the CN
S
– Carried by efferent nerve fibers of PNS to effec
tors
– Innervate muscles and glands
Sensory Input and Motor Outp
ut
Divided according to region they serve
– Somatic body region
– Visceral body region
Results in four main subdivisions
– Somatic sensory
– Visceral sensory
– Somatic motor
– Visceral motor
Somatic Sensory
Somatic sensory
– General somatic senses – receptors are widely s
pread
Touch, pain, vibration, pressure, and temperature
Proprioceptive senses – detect stretch in tendons and
muscle
Body sense – position and movement of body in spa
ce
– Special somatic senses
Hearing, balance, vision, and smell
Visceral Sensory
Visceral sensory
– General visceral senses – stretch, pain, temperat
ure, nausea, and hunger
Widely felt in digestive and urinary tracts, reproduct
ive organs
– Special visceral senses – taste
Somatic Motor
Somatic motor
– General somatic motor – signals contraction of
skeletal muscles
Under voluntary control
Often called “voluntary nervous system”
Visceral Motor
Visceral motor
– Regulates the contraction of smooth and cardia
c muscle and gland secretion
– Makes up autonomic nervous system
– Controls function of visceral organs
– Often called “involuntary nervous system”
Peripheral Nervous System S
ummary
Figure 12.3
Types of Sensory and Motor I
nformation
Figure 12.3
Types of Sensory and Motor I
nformation
Figure 12.3
Nervous Tissue
he plasma membrane
– Graded potentials
– Action potentials
Cells of Nervous System
• Neurons or nerve cells
– Receive stimuli and
transmit action
potentials
– Organization
• Cell body or soma
• Dendrites: Input
• Axons: Output
• Neuroglia or glial cells
– Support and protect
neurons
Section 1 General Function of Neuron and Neuroglia
I Neuron
The Neuron: Special Characte
ristics
– Longevity – can live and function for a lifetime
– Do not divide – fetal neurons lose their ability t
o undergo mitosis; neural stem cells are an exce
ption
– High metabolic rate – require abundant oxygen
and glucose
Neuron Structure
1. Structure and Function
Typical Neuron has 4 Regions
• Cell Body
• Dendrites
• Axon
• Presynaptic Terminals
Each region is specialized
for its particular function
Information flows in a single
direction
The Cell Body or Soma (also
called Perikaryon)
– Size varies from 5–140µm
– Contains nucleus, organelles plus other structur
es
Chromatophilic bodies (Nissl bodies)
– Clusters of rough ER and free ribosomes
– Stain darkly and renew membranes of the cell
Neurofibrils – bundles of intermediate filaments
– Form a network between chromatophilic bodies
Nissl Body Staining
The Cell Body
Most neuronal cell bodies
– Located within the CNS (clustered in nuclei)
– Protected by bones of the skull and vertebral co
lumn
Ganglia – clusters of cell bodies in PNS
Cell Body Structure
Figure 12.4
Neuron Cell Body Location
· Extensions
outside the cell
body
·Dendrites –
conduct
impulses toward
the cell body
·Axons – conduct
impulses away
from the cell
body (only 1!)
Dendrites of Motor Neurons
• Short, tapering, and
diffusely branched
processes
• They are the
receptive, or input,
regions of the
neuron
• Electrical signals
are conveyed as
graded potentials
(not action
potentials)
Neuron Processes: Dendrites
Dendrites
– Extensively branching from
the cell body
– Transmit electrical signals
(graded potentials) toward t
he cell body
– Chromatophilic bodies – onl
y extend into the basal part
of dendrites
– Function as receptive sites
Dendritic Spines
• Slender processes of Axons: Structure
uniform diameter arising
from the hillock
• Long axons are called
nerve fibers
• Usually there is only one
unbranched axon per
neuron
• Rare branches, if present,
are called axon collaterals
• Axonal terminal –
branched terminus of an
axon
Neuron Processes: Axons
Axons
– Neurofilaments, actin
microfilaments, and
microtubules
Provide strength along
length of axon
Aid in the transport of
substances to and fro
m the cell body
– Axonal transport
Neuron Processes
Axons
– Branches along length are infreq
uent
– Multiple branches at end of axon
Terminal branches (telodendria)
– End in knobs called axon termi
nals (also called end bulbs or b
outons)
Neuron Structure
Neuron Processes:
Nerve impulse Action Pot
(action potential)
entialsat the initial segment of t
– Generated
he axon
– Conducted along the axon
– Releases neurotransmitters at axon
terminals
– Neurotransmitters – excite or inhibi
t neurons
– Neuron receives and sends signals
Axons: Function
• Generate and
transmit action
potentials
• Secrete
neurotransmitters
from the axonal
terminals
• Whitish, fatty Myelin Sheath
(protein-lipid),
segmented sheath
around most long
axons
• It functions in:
– Protection of the axon
– Electrically insulating
fibers from one
another
– Increasing the speed of
nerve impulse
transmission
Myelin
• CNS: oligodendroglia
or oligodendrocytes
Formation of myelin
sheath in cns.
Figure 12.15b
Myelin Sheaths in the PNS – u
nmyelinated axons
Figure 12.15b
Myelin Sheaths in the CNS
Oligodendrocytes form t
he myelin sheaths in the
CNS
– Have multiple processes
– Coil around several diffe
rent axons
Nodes of Ranvier
• Gaps in the
myelin sheath
between
adjacent
Schwann cells
• They are the
sites where
collaterals can
emerge
• Saltatory
conduction
Myelin Sheath and Neurilemma: Formation
• Formed by Schwann cells in the PNS
• A Schwann cell:
– Envelopes an axon in a trough
– Encloses the axon with its plasma membrane
– Concentric layers of membrane make up the myelin
sheath
• Neurilemma – remaining nucleus and cytoplasm
of a Schwann cell
Myelin
Sheath and
Neurilemma:
Formation
Figure 11.5a-d
Unmyelinated Axons
• A Schwann cell surrounds nerve fibers but
coiling does not take place
• Schwann cells partially enclose 15 or more axons
Axons of the CNS
• Both myelinated and unmyelinated fibers are
present
• Myelin sheaths are formed by oligodendrocytes
• Nodes of Ranvier are widely spaced
• There is no neurilemma
Terminal Ending
Synapses
Site at which neurons communicate
Signals pass across synapse in one direction
Presynaptic neuron
– Conducts signal toward a synapse
Postsynaptic neuron
– Transmits electrical activity away from a synap
se
Two Neurons Communicating
at a Synapse
Figure 12.6
Classification of Neurons
Structural Classification
Functional Classification
Structural Classification of Ne
urons
Classification based on number of processes
– Multipolar
– Bipolar
– Unipolar (pseudounipolar)
By Neurite Shape or Number
(axons and dendrites)
Figure 12.10a–c
Bipolar Neurons
Figure 12.10a–c
Unipolar (Pseudounipolar) Ne
urons
Figure 12.10a–c
Functional Classification of Ne
urons
Classification based on direction of action
potential propagation
– Afferents –– from CNS to periphery
– Efferents from periphery to CNS
– Interneurons – within CNS
Afferent neurons
Afferent (sensory) neurons –
transmit impulses toward the CNS
– Virtually all are pseudounipolar neurons (some
true bipolar)
– Cell bodies in ganglia outside the CNS
Short, single process divides into
– The central process – runs centrally into the CN
S
– The peripheral process – extends peripherally to
the receptors
Periphery CNS
Afferent Neurons
Axon terminals
Sensory receptors
Functional Classification of
Neurons
· Sensory (afferent) neurons
·Carry impulses from the sensory receptors
·Cutaneous sense organs
·Proprioceptors – detect stretch or tension
Figure 12.11
Functional Classification of
Neurons
Sensory Motor
Interneuron
Neuron Classification
2. Classification and Function of Nerve
Fibers
• Function: conducting action potential
1)Characteristic
insulation,
two direction
no fatigue
2). Conducting velocities of AP propagation:
0.5~120m/s.
The factors that influence the AP propagation:
~The diameter of NF: 0.2 -20 mm, The larger the
diameter is , The faster A.P. propagates.
~ Myelin sheath:
~Temperature:
3). The general classification of NF
Electrical physiological classification (efferent
nerve): A, A, A, A; B, C.
Morphological classification (afferent nerve): I,
II, III, IV.
Neuron Internal Structure
Common structures
Organelles – smaller parts of
the cell with specific funtions
Cell membrane – acts as a ga
tekeeper
Cytoplasm
Organelles are surrounded by a
jelly like substance
Primary component is water
Nucleus
Largest and most identifiable pa
rt of the cell
Nucleus
Brain of the cell
Site of much of the manipulatio
n done in biotechnology
Nucleus
Controls activity of the cell
Round or oval structure
Typically found in the middle o
f the cell
Appears darker than surroundin
g material
Nucleus
Surrounded by a membrane that
controls passage of materials in
and out of the area
Nucleus
Contains DNA
DNA is located on chromosome
s
Most organisms are diploid – ha
ve tow chromosomes for each tr
ait
Other organelles
Ribosomes
Mitochondria
Golgibodies
Endoplasmic reticulum
Cytoplasmic Organell
es
Organelles are required for proper
cell function
Ribosome – make proteins for cell
ular use and communication
May be attached to endoplasmic ret
iculum
Endomembrane System
Endomembrane system
-a series of membranes throughout the cyto
plasm
-divides cell into compartments where diffe
rent cellular functions occur
1. endoplasmic reticulum
2. Golgi apparatus
3. lysosomes
90
Endoplasmic reticulu
m
Layeredmembraneous
Make and transport proteins
Endomembrane System
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
-membranes that create a network of channe
ls throughout the cytoplasm
-attachment of ribosomes to the membrane
gives a rough appearance
-synthesis of proteins to be secreted, sent to
lysosomes or plasma membrane
92
Endomembrane System
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
-relatively few ribosomes attached
-functions:
-synthesis of membrane lipids
-calcium storage
-detoxification of foreign substances
93
Smooth & Rough Endoplasmic Ret
iculum
Smooth ER lacks
ribosomes &
makes proteins
USED In the cell
Rough ER has
ribosomes on its
surface & makes
proteins to
EXPORT
Endomembrane System
95
Lysosome
Contain digestive
enzymes
Break down food
and worn out cell
parts for cells
Programmed for c
ell death (lyse &
release enzymes t
o break down & r
Vacuole
Large organelle, without specifi
c shape
Store waste or raw materials us
ed in synthesis of proteins
Golgi Bodies
Stacks of flatten
ed sacs
Have a shipping s
ide & a receiving
side
Receive & modify
proteins made by
Transport
ER vesicle
Transport vesicle
Golgi Bodies
Golgi apparatus
Similar to endo. Ret.
Look like a thick elastic band th
at has been folded several times
Golgi Bodies
Adds modifications to unfinishe
d proteins
Makes lysosomes
101
Lysosome
Small round
Store enzymes that break down
food into chemical compounds
Destroy cell organelles and the
cell itself
Eukaryotic Cells
Ribosomes
-the site of protein synthesis in the cell
-composed of ribosomal RNA and proteins
-found within the cytosol of the cytoplasm a
nd attached to internal membranes
103
Mitochondria
Energy factories
Rod shaped
Change food into molecules tha
t can be used for energy
Mitochondria
Contain DNA
Can replicate themselves
Mitochondria
-surrounded by 2 membranes
-smooth outer membrane
-folded inner membrane with layers ca
lled cristae
-matrix is within the inner membrane
-intermembrane space is located between t
he two membranes
-contain their own DNA
106
Mitochondria
107
Cytoskeleton
Cytoskeleton
-network of protein fibers found in all eukar
yotic cells
-supports the shape of the cell
-keeps organelles in fixed locations
-helps move materials within the cell
108
The soma
– Nucleus
Gene expression
– Rough Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
Major site for protein synthesis
– Ribosomes
– Smooth ER and Golgi Apparatus
Sites for preparing/sorting proteins
nd exhale)
Krebs cycle
– Lysosomes
Glial Cells (Supporting Cells)
Six types of glial cells
– Four in the CNS
– Two in the PNS
Provide supportive functions for neurons
Cover nonsynaptic regions of the neurons
Supporting Cells (Neuroglial C
ells) in the CNS
Neuroglia – usually only refers to supportin
g cells in the CNS, but can be used for PNS
– Glial cells have branching processes and a centr
al cell body
– Outnumber neurons 10 to 1
– Make up half the mass of the brain
– Can divide throughout life
Types of Glial Cells in the CN
Astrocytes
Microglia
S
Ependymal Cells
Oligodendrocytes
Astrocytes
– Astrocytes – most abundant glial cell type
Take up and release ions to control the environment
around neurons
Recapture and recycle neurotransmitters
al tissue
Produce molecules necessary for neural growth (BD
TF)
Propagate calcium signals that may be involved in
memory
Astrocytes
Figure 12.12a
Microglia
Microglia – smallest and
least abundant
Phagocytes –
the macrophages
of the CNS
Engulf invading microorgani
sms and dead neurons
Derived from blood cells cal
led monocytes
Figure 12.12b
Ependymal Cells
– Ependymal cells
Line the central cavity of the spinal cord and brain
Figure 12.13
Oligodendrocytes
Nerves
Nerves – cordlike organs in the PNS
Consists of numerous axons wrapped in con
nective tissue
Axon is surrounded by Schwann cells
Nerves
Endoneurium – layer of delic
ate connective tissue surroun
ding the axon
Nerve fascicles – groups of a
xons bound into bundles
Perineurium – connective tiss
ue wrapping surrounding a ne
rve fascicle
Epineurium – whole nerve is
surrounded by tough fibrous
sheath
Simplified Design of the Nervo
us –System
Sensory neurons located dorsally
– Cell bodies outside the CNS in sensory ganglia
– Central processes enter dorsal aspect of the spin
al cord
Motor neurons – located ventrally
– Axons exit the ventral aspect of the spinal cord
Interneurons – located centrally
– Provide communication between sensory and m
otor neurons and between levels of the CNS
Gray versus White Matter in th
Gray matter
–eCell
Central Nervous System
• White matter
bodies • Axons (myelin)
– Dendrites
– Synapses
Gray
Matter
Gray matter in the
in the spinal cord Spinal Cord
– H-shaped (butterfly) region – surrounds central cav
ity
– Dorsal half contains cell bodies of interneurons
– Ventral half contains cell bodies of motor neurons
– Cell bodies are clustered in the gray matter
White Matter in the Spinal Cor
White matter in the spinal cord
d
– Located externally to the gray matter
– Contains no neuronal cell bodies, but millions of ax
ons
– Myelin sheath – white color
Consists of axons running between different parts of
the CNS
Tracts – bundles of axons traveling to similar destin
ations
CortexGray Matter
and nuclei in Brain
White
Pathways, Matter
tracts in Brain
and commissures
Types of Synapses
Axodendritic
– Between axon terminals of one neuron and den
drites of another
– Most common type of synapse
Axosomatic
– Between axons and neuronal cell bodies
Axoaxonic, dendrodendritic, and dendroso
matic
– Less common types of synapses
– Function not as well understood
Types of Synapses
Figure 12.7
Synapses
Axodendritic synapses – representative type
Synaptic vesicles on presynaptic side
– Membrane-bound sacs containing neurotransmitters
– Mitochondria abundant in axon terminals
Synaptic cleft separates the plasma membrane of
the two neurons
Structure of a Synapses
PLAY Synapse
Figure 12.8a, b
Synapse
4) Axoplasmic transport
The concept: Various organelles and materials must
be moved from the cell body, where they are made, to
the axon and its terminals in order to maintain the
structure and function of the cell axon.
The mechanisms: Cytoskeletal filaments in the
axon and cell body, which serve as the rails along
which the transport occurs, are linked by proteins to
the substances and organelles being moved.
Anterograde axoplasmic transport
~ fast axoplasmic transport: 410mm/day,
mitochondria, vesicles, secretory granule.
~ slow axoplasmic transport:1-12 mm/d, cytoskeletal
elements & soluble proteins
Retrograde axoplasmic transport : Axon
transport of certain materials are from the axon
terminals to the cell body. 205mm/d,
Fig. Axopasmic transport
II Supporting Cells: Neuroglia
Ependymlal
Cell
Microglia
Oligod
endro
cyte Astrocyte
• Astrocytes
– Regulate extracellular brain fluid composition
– Promote tight junctions to form blood-brain barrier
• Ependymal Cells
– Line brain ventricles and spinal cord central canal
– Help form choroid plexuses that secrete cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
Neuroglia of CNS
• Microglia
– Specialized macrophages
• Oligodendrocytes
– Form myelin sheaths if surround axon
Neuroglia of PNS