FRUITS AND VEGETABLES PROCESSING

TECHNOLOGY FSPT 3141

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1. Introduction

• Ethiopia still faces the problem of improper storage

of food stuffs that leads to great wastage.

• More than 25% of f & veg are wasted due to

inadequate facilities for storage & processing.

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Such losses aggravate the existing malnutrition and
under nutrition.

F and vegs are important ingredients in the human

dietaries.

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Fruit and veg processing has been engaging the attention of
nutritionists, planners and policy makers.

Reasons:
F and vegs are:

cheaper and better source of of protective foods.

surplus during certain periods of the year in different regions.

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 are wasted in large quantities due to:

• Absence of facilities for processing,

• Lack of know-how for proper handling,

• Improper storage, distribution and marketing.

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Thus the main objective of fruit and veg
processing is to:

 supply wholesome, safe, nutritious and

acceptable food to consumers throughout the
year.

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 Replace imported products like squash, jam,
many tomato products, pickles, etc.

 Earn foreign exchange by exporting finished or

semi-processed products.

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Fruit and veg processing is required for the
following reasons.

1. Diversification of the economy ie. reduce the

dependence on one export commodity.

2. Reduce fruit and veg losses

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3. Reduction of imports and meeting export
demand
4. Stimulate agri production

5. Generate both urban and rural employment

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6. Improve farmer’s nutrition by allowing them to
consume their processed f and veg during off
season.

7. Government industrialization policy is met.

8. Develop new value added products.

9. Generate new sources of income for farmers.

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The rural home makers, who produces the food
have not been exposed to modern method of
processing. So:

o We need to disseminate the processing

technology to rural areas.

o However, appropriateness of the technology

should be assessed.

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This technology should meet the criteria of:
• low cost,
• low input,
• low risk,
• rural bias suitable for small scale application,
use of local inputs and

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Constraints faced and suggested by rural
farmers during processing of f and vegs:
1. Non-availability of modern processing
technologies.
2. High cost of machinery and equipments

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3. Lack of information about improved
Technologies
4. Lack of sufficient capital.
5. Lack of information about loaning scheme.

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6. Excessive burden of work and responsibility.
7. Lack of recognition and appreciation in the
family.
8. High cost and distant place for availability of
raw materials.
9. Difficulty in getting money from buyers after
sale.

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Factors to be considered in setting up a f and veg
processing industry:
1. Product mix- a wide variety of products can
be made from one f or veg.
This choice depends on availability of raw
material in the area and consumer
preference.
Eg. Pineapple- canned pine apple, Juice, Jam,
Syrup, Squash.
Tomato- Juice, paste, puree, ketch up, sauce etc.

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2. Availability of raw materials
3. ,, of man power
4. ,, capital
5. Awareness on market,
6. technical knowledge of processing.

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7. Market facility
8. Transport facility
9. Availability of containers
10. Publicity to attract consumers

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11. Government role-give encouragement.
12. Directorate of horticulture and f and veg
processing should promote industries by :
- Establish community canning center
- Training
- Research.

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Fruits and vesgs
• Are an indispensable part of any diet, not only
for vegetarians, but also for non-vegetarians.
• They are important source of vitamins and
minerals.
• Nowadays special emphasis is being paid to
the consumption of fresh fruits and vegs.

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Fruits
Ethiopia has a distinct advantage over many
other countries due to its diverse and
favorable agro-climate conditions favoring
fruit production.

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Fruits are matured ovaries of flowers and
consists the seed obtained after fertilization.
It is obtained after fertilization. Exception are
banana and pineapple are a result of
partenocarpy (ie. without fertilization).

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• Fruits are generally sweet in taste which is
attributed to the presence of fructose as a
main saccharid in fruits.

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Fruits can be classified as follows

Type character
Berries - numerous pericarp layers
- pulpy and juicy that enclose seeds
- eg. Strawberry, blue berry,
raspberry, gooseberry.
Drupe - Thin epicarp, thick and fleshy
mosocarp
stony endocarp.
Eg. Peach, mango, plum

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Citrus - high amount of vit C and fibrousin
nature,
genus citrus
Eg. Orange , lemon, grape fruit,
Tangerine, Pomelo
Melons -Family cucurbitaceae
- it is 95% water, and 5% sugar
content
- Highly fleshy,supply plenty of water
Eg water melon

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Tropical fruits- grows in tropics
eg. Avocado, banana, Guava
Temperate fruits (Pomes)
-receptacle enlarged and
becomes the juicy fruit Eg. Apple, pear.

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Composition
Besides nutritive value, the chief components
are:
Water- forms a major portion, 75-90%
Water is chiefly found in the vacuoles of plant
cells and contains soluble substances in a
dissolved state.
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• The chief soluble compounds are sugar, salts,
water soluble pigments, and organic acids.

• It is this water content that makes fruit so

beneficial in maintaining the water balance of
the body and helps to control body
dehydration.

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Nutritive values (components)
 Nutritive value is mainly due to plenty of
minerals and vitamins
 They are generally poor contributors of
calories except banana, avocado, mango.
This content varies from 2 to 20g/100g.

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Carbohydrates-
 The polysaccharids cellulose, hemicellulose are
the complex c.h. they contribute to roughage
content.
 Soluble sugars, primary fructose, impart
sweetness to fruits.
 Glucose and sucrose are also present in them.

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Proteins and fats
Normally fruits are poor source of proteins and
fats.
Avocado is the exception. it has a fat content of
about 23-28%.

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Vitamins and minerals
The most important nutritional aspect of f and
veg lies on the vitamin and mineral content.
- This is the reason they are advised to be
consumed fresh at least twice a day.
- Vitamin C is the major vitamin contributed by f
and veg. Citrus is especially is reach in ascorbic
acid. 30-50 mg/100 g

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- Guava is best source of vit C 212 mg/100 g.
- B carotene and other carotenoid pigments,
the precursor of vit A are found too.
• Yellow to orange colored fruits contains this
vitamin.
Mango, papaya, orange are good source of
this vitamin.
• Most B-vitamins occur in low concentration

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• F and veg are fair source of folic acid also
called vit B9
it is necessary for the growth of red blood
cells.
• Sources of folic acid include:
fresh green leafy vegs like asparagus, liver,
kidney, poultry, milk, fresh egg.

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• A deficiency of folic acid results in anemia.
• Fruits are not particularly a mineral rich food
source.
• However, some fruits like pumpkin and
melons are very good source of iron, sulfur,
phosphorus and calcium.

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Acids
• Fruits and veg contain some free organic acids.
• Citric acid and malic acid are the constituents of
most fruits.
• A grape especially is rich in tartaric acid and
oxalic acid.

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Pigments
Fruits contain a number of pigments .This is the reason for the multitude of
colors in them.
The major pigments are:
Pigment color examples
• Chlorophyll Green unripe fruits, guava
• Carotenoids yellow-orange mango, papaya, peach, pine
apple
• Lycopene red- orange tomato
• Anthocyanins purple guava, plums, blue
berry.
• Anthoxanthins purplish brown apple, custard apple,
goose berry, pears

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• Many fruits may contain a combination of
various pigments eg. Orange contains
chlorophyll in addition to carotenoids. This
property is responsible for the color change in
them.
• The color of the predominant pigment is visible
and masks the other pigment.
• The most important pigments in fruits are
carotenoids and anthocyanins.
 

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 They differ in the following way.
Carotenoids Anthocyanins
- Yellow-orange in color - purple blue
- Insoluble in water - soluble in water-
- Not affected by acids or alkali - Change color on reacting
Eg. Mango, orange, papaya with alkali

Eg. beetroot, grape,

blueberry
 

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Polyphenols
They are responsible for the astringency and tart
taste of fruits and The puckering mouthful
after consumption.
Unripe fruits eg. Orange, which contain higher
level of polyphenol are more astringent and
bitter than sweet ripe fruits.

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Flavor substances
No fruit taste the same and have different
aroma and smell. This unique character is
attributed to various flavor substances present
in them.
Flavor is imparted by volatile compounds, sugar,
tanins, and mineral salts.

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The major volatile compounds found in fruits
are: aldehydes, ketons, esters, acids, alcohols
etc.
The combination of various compounds gives
the desired and unique flavor.

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Fruit volatile flavor compounds
1. Apple alcohol, esters, aldehydes, ketons,
acids, hexanal, ethyl-2-methyl
butyrate.
2. Banana alcohol, esters, amyl acetate, butyl
butyrate.
3. Orange ethanol, esters, acetaldehyde,
limonen, linalool

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4. Peach benzyl alcohol, benzaldehyde.
5. Pine apple methyl ester of B-hydroxyl butyric
acid.
6. Strawberry methyl and ethyl esters,
propionates and butyrates.

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Cellulose and pectic substances
The plant cell wall is made up of cellulose.
Since the human digestive system lacks the
enzyme cellulase the cellulose passes as
roughage (the indigestible material).
 Pectic substances- are another class of
compounds which act as cementing
substances between cells, hence cells remains
bound to each other.

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Pectic substances occur in three forms:
Pro-pectin: present in unripe stage
Pectin: present in ripe fruit
Pectic acid: present in overripe fruits.

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Polyphenol
These are responsible for astringency and tart taste
of fruits.
Unripe fruits contain higher level of polyphenol and
are more astringent than ripe fruits.
Enzymatic browning:-
Cut surfaces of fruits darken and show brown
discoloration. When fruit is intact, the natural
enzyme compounds and poly phenols remain
confined in the cells and have no access to the
phenol oxidase present in some cells.

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Once the fruit is cut it comes in contact with air
and
Phenol oxdaes present in some cells.
Factors essential for enzymatic browning are:
• presence of oxygen
• Presence of enzyme in active form
• Optimum condition of temperature and pH.

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2. Blanching
 Is heat treatment to inactivate enzymes.
Thus browning can be reduced to a certain extent by lowering or
raising the temperature from the optimum range which is 43
to 500C
3. Alteration of pH
As all enzymes are pH sensitive
The pH can be altered from optimum range by adding acids to
lower pH. Citric acid, malic acid, ascorbic acid, are effective in
reducing browning.
Lowering PH up to 4 has a significant effect on reducing
browning.
4. Cut off oxygen supply

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Methods
A) Keeping the cut fruits dipped in water, milk, curd, honey or any
desirable fluid.
B) Covering the cut surface by wet cloth
C) Sprinkling sugar on the fruit. This causes exosmosis and the layer of
solution that forms on the surface does not let oxygen in contact
with fruits.
D) Packaging in nitrogen condition, deoxigenation and vacuum closing
are used.
E) Using reducing agent/antioxidants
eg. Pineapple juice which is rich in sulphydryl compound, it is an
active antioxidant

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Bitterness in fruits
Some fruits like citrus have bitterness and tangy taste .
This is due to the presence of limoninoids and flavinoids.
The main compound of limoninoids is limonin.
Flavonoids is for example present in grape fruit.
Vegetables
They contribute nutritionally to the diet (fiber, vitamin,
mineral).
Pigments in vegs are:
water soluble eg. Anthocyanins, anthoxantins etc.
Fat soluble eg. Chlorophyll, carotenoids.

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Organic acids
Organic acids are found in vegs although in low
concentration.
Eg. Formic,malic, benzoic,tartaric,fumaric, acetic
acids.
Vegs have pH range of 5.0 to 5.6
Eg. Tomato and other vegs has pH of 4.0 to 4.6
Potato and pea lie on neutral side 6.1 to 6.3
Lemon and other citrics have lower pH owing to
their acid content.

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Enzymes
Enzymes although catalyses they have also an
adverse effect. For instance:
1. Pectinesterase and poly galacturonase causes
ripening in tomato and banana, if the reaction
continued, the fruit gets spoiled due to
conversion of pectin to pectic acid which is sour
in taste.
2. Anthocynase enzyme bleaches anthocyanin
pigment and makes them unappetizing.
3. Phenolases and peroxidases accelerate oxidative
reaction and cause browning reaction.
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Flavor compounds
The overall flavor as perceived by human beings, is
due to primary sugar, acids, salts, and bitter
compounds.
Astringency is due to phenolic compounds and
tanins.
Organic acids like aldehydes, ketons, sulphur
compounds, and organic acids singly or in
combination affects the natural flavor.
Vegs of allium and brasicaea family have strong flavor
because of the presence of sulphur compounds in
them. Eg. Onion, shallot, leek, garlic.
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The irritation of onion cutting/chopping is due to
volatile sulphur fumes given off when the
enzymes present in the tissue acts upon sulphur
compound.
Cookery
Raw vegs are generally high in water and cellulose
but low in the starch content.
Starchy vegs are best when cooked as starch gets
converted into simple sugar.
The first step in processing is washing as vegs are
near to soil and may have contamination danger.
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Peeling/de-skinning
Peeling prior to cooking should be discouraged.
If peeling
1. Nutrients present just below the peel deep down
and are not removed in the process of peeling.
2. After cooking, it is easier to peel the skin since it
becomes soft and partially leaves the under laying
layer.
3. Natural flavor and aroma of vegs is better retained.
4. The color, which is lost before cooking, will be
conserve after cooking with the skin intact.

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** Blanching is also useful in vegs processing.
Blanching involves heating at moderate boiling
and cold treatment given to vegs.
First deep in boiling hot water and suddenly
immerse in cold water.
This is done to destroy microorganisms, denatur
enzymes and facilitate easy removal of the
skin. This can be done for example in tomato
and potato processing.

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Changes that may occur during cooking (as an
advantages) are:
1. Improves digestability
2. Enhance color, texture, flavor, and aroma.
3. Make vegs more appetizing. Eg. Cabbage
4. Destroy microbes, reduce risk of disease and
infestation.
5. Starch gets gelatinized and protein coagulates.
6. Fiber (cellulose, hemicellulose) gets softened.

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Additives which aids in cooking
1. Sodium carbonate softens cellulose and disintegrates
it on cooking if added to vegs preparation.
2. Acids on addition causes firmness in texture and
interfere with softening vegs.
eg. Potato or any other vegs should be boiled or fried
before the addition of tomato or any acid.
3. Calcium chloride or calcium hydroxide in saturated
solution makes vegs tissue firmer as it forms insoluble
calcium salts with pectin substances.
4. Calcium chloride CaCl2 is usually added to canned
tomato in order to prevent their softening.

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Losses of nutrients while cooking
The loss starts from pre-preparation stage and
continuous till the cooking is complete. Causes
of losses include:
1. Mechanical losses
On peeling, vitamins and minerals just beneath
the skin are also removed.eg carrot,beets.
- Cleaning of vegs like cabbage involves the
removal of the outer leaves which are most
nutritious.

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2. Chemical loss
This is due to the solvent nature of water.
Water soluble vitamins leached out into water.
Eg. Loss in riboflavin, thiamin, niacin, vit C etc.
3. Oxidative losses
Vitamin C is readily oxidized when exposed to the
atmosphere and gets in contact with an enzyme called
ascorbic acid oxidase. This is accelerated by heat, alkaline
medium ,traces of copper and access with atmospheric
oxygen.
Vitamin A is also oxidised by dehydration and application of
heat.

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Solutions to minimize nutrient losses
1. Reduce the amount of water used for cooking. If possible, use
pressure cooker and steaming.
2. Reduce the time of cooking process.
3. Boil water prior to cooking process
4. Pan should be covered during cooking process
5. Reduce the exposed area of vegs during chopping. cut in
bigger pieces.
6. The water used for cooking should be reused. This helps to
return the leached nutrients.
7. Foods once cooked should be consumed as soon as possible
since the nutrient losses continue even when refrigerated.
8. Use sharp knife during cutting.

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3. Physiology of ripening
Physiological development
The life of f and veg are divided in to three major physiological
stages.
1. Growth- starts from cell division, cell enlargement up to final
size.
2. Maturation- usually starts just before growth stage is
completed .it is able to perform all the activities.
3. Ripening- begins during later stage of maturity and is the 1 st
stage of senescence.
4. Senescence- is a period when anabolic/synthesis processes give
way to catabolic /degradation process leading to aging and
finally death of tissue.
* Development and maturation of fruits are completed only when it
is attached to the mother plant.

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3.3. Physiology of respiration
Respiration is a major metabolic process, taking place in
harvested produce or in any living plant product
• Respiration rate of produce is an excellent indicator of
metabolic activity of the tissue and thus is a useful guide to
the potential storage life of the produce
 If respiration rate of fruit or vegetable is measured (as either O2
consumed or CO2 evolved) during the course of its development (i.e.
growth + maturation), maturation, ripening and senescence period, a
characteristic respiratory pattern is obtained

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• Respiration rate per unit weight is highest for the immature
fruit or vegetable and than steadily declines with age
• A significant group of fruit (e.g. mango, banana, apple,
tomato) shows a variation from the described respiratory
pattern in that they undergo a pronounced increase in
respiration with ripening
– Such an increase in respiration coincident with ripening is known as
respiratory climacteric and this group of fruit is known as the
climacteric fruits.

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• The commencement of the respiratory climacteric
coincides appromaximately with the attainment of
maximum size and during its climacteric that all
the other changes and characteristics of ripening
occur
• The respiratory climacteric as well as the complete
ripening process may proceed while the fruit is
either attached to or detached from the plant

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• Those fruits (e.g. citrus fruits, pineapple, strawberry
etc.) which do not exhibit a respiratory climacteric, are
known as non-climacteric fruits
• Theses non-climacteric fruits exhibit most of the
ripening changes, although these usually occur more
slowly than most of the climacteric fruit
• All vegetables can also be considered to have a non
climacteric type of respiratory pattern (except tomato)

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• Fruits are classified as:

– Climacteric, meaning they have a definite peak in a

respiratory rate for production of carbon dioxide and
ethylene
• Eg. Tomato, mango, apple, apricot, avocado, peach, banana,
papaya, passion fruit etc

– Non-climacteric, where there is a gradual decrease in

respiration and CO2 release
• Eg. Blueberry, cherry, cucumber, grape, lemon, pineapple,
mandarin, strawberry, sweet orange, plum etc.

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• Fruits are classified as:

– Climacteric, meaning they have a definite peak in a

respiratory rate for production of carbon dioxide and
ethylene
• Eg. Tomato, mango, apple, apricot, avocado, peach, banana,
papaya, passion fruit etc

– Non-climacteric, where there is a gradual decrease in

respiration and CO2 release
• Eg. Blueberry, cherry, cucumber, grape, lemon, pineapple,
mandarin, strawberry, sweet orange, plum etc.

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Physiology of Ripening and Maturity
• Basic important fact in post harvest handling of fruits and vegetables is that
harvested fruits and vegetables are living structures
• Different harvest regimes for Fruits and vegetables

• Appropriate maturity stage required for optimum quality

• Respiration continue after harvest i.e taking in O2 and giving off CO2, heat
and moisture
 losses of respireable substrates and moisture are not compensated
and deterioration starts; it implies fruits and vegetables are perishable
• mechanical damage during harvesting hastens respiration rate and spoilage

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 Fruit ripening
• Changes that may occur during the ripening of fleshy fruit;
– Seed maturation
– Color changes
– Abscission (detachment from parent plant)
– Changes in respiration rate.
– Changes in rate of ethylene production
– Changes in tissue permeability
– Softening (changes in composition of pectic substances)
*Unripe fruits are firm while ripe is soft for touch.
* from proto-pectin to pectin then to pectic acid.
– Changes in carbohydrate composition
*increase in sugar by decreasing starch content.
– Organic acid changes. Decrease acidity.
– Protein changes
– Increase the production of flavor volatiles and essential oils.
– Development of wax on skin. Eg. orange

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Factors Affecting Ripening of Fruits and
Vegetables

- Respiration

- Transpiration / water loss

- Ripening Ethylene production

- Pathological stresses
- Mechanical stress

- Temperature stresses.
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• Chemicals that hasten ripening

– Ethylene
– Acetylene and calcium chloride

– Smoke treatment
– 2,4-D

• Chemicals that delay ripening

– Cytokinins and Kinetins

– Gibberellins
– Growth retardants

– MH
– Alar

– CCC (Cycocel)-2 chloroethyl – trimethyl ammonium chloride

• Delaying ripening process by skin coating (waxing)

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Pre and Post Harvest Factors Affecting Quality in Post
Harvest Shelf Life of Fruits and Vegetables
• Pre-harvest factors
– Cultivar and root stack genotype
– Water supply (irrigation)
– Soil fertility and use of fertilizers
– Mineral nutrition
– Foliar nutrient spray
– Cultivation practices
• Post harvest factors
– Perishability and produce losses
– Physiological deterioration
– Pest and Diseases
– Mechanical damage (Physical injury)

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Canning and bottling of fruits and vegetables
Canning is the process of sealing food stuffs hermetically in
containers and sterilize them by heat for long storage.
Fruits and vegs are canned when raw material is available in
plenty.
Procedures
1. Selecting fruits and vegs
-it should be absolutely fresh
-Be ripe but firm and uniformly mature
-Over ripe may be infected by mos. and give poor quality
product.
-Under ripe may shrivel and toughen on canning.
- Be free from dirt, blemishes, inner damage, injury.

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2. Grading
The selected f and vegs are graded according to size and
color to obtain uniform quality.
Grading may be done by hand or machine.
Fruits like berries, plums cherries are graded whole.
While peaches ,mango, pineapple, are generally graded
after cutting into slices.
3. Washing
Is done to remove pesticide spray residue and dust.
Root crops are washed by soaking in water containing 25 to
50 ppm chlorine that can dissolve dirt and oil.
Other methods of washing are spray washing and steam
wsashing.
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4. Peeling
Its

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Containers for packaging of packed foods
 Both tin and glass are used in cunning industry.
Tin cans are made of thin steel plate of low carbon content.
It is difficult to coat the steel plate uniformly and during the
manufacture of tin small microscopic spots may left uncoated
although the coating may appear perfect to the eye.
The food may react with the uncoated spot resulting in
discoloration of food or corrosion of tin plate.
When corrosion is severe, black stains of iron sulphide is
produced.
It is necessary to coat the inside of the can with some material
(lacquer) which prevent discoloration but does not affect
flavor or wholesomeness of the food.

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Two types of lacquers are used.
1. Acid resistant lacquer
Here the can is used to pack acid fruits which are two
kinds
A) Those whose coloring matter is insoluble in water.
eg. Peach, pineapple, grape fruit.
B) Those in which it is water soluble.
Eg. Strawberry, plum.
2. Sulphur resistant lacquer
Used for nonacid foods only and should not be used for
any high acid products as acid eats in to the lacquer.
This can be used for pea, corn, lima bean, kidney bean
etc. 79
Glass containers—has two advantages over tin
containers.
1. Contents are visible and easily displayed.
2. Can be used over and over again and glass of
high quality does not contaminate the food.
Hence, preferred to pack baby foods.
-but being fragile, it requires extra care during
handling and processing.
In recent years, plastic containers and heat
sealable pouches have been used to
substitute f and veg containers.
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Bottling of fruits
Advantages of bottles:
-The fruit looks attractive through the glass
-the fruit does not develop metallic flavor
Disadvantages:
Breakage and is heavier than tin
In bottling, the steps before filling and syruping
is the same as canning.

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Filling and syruping
Bottles must be thoroughly washed and sterilized.
The fruit slices are filled leaving 3 cm head space at the top of bottle/jar.
The sugar syrup recommended for different fruits is filled boiling hot leaving
a head space of up to 2 cm.
Exhausting and sterilization
Both can be done simultaneously by putting a false bottom under the bottle.
Bottles should not be abruptly immersed in hot water, if not it may break due
to sudden rise in temperature.
The temperature of the water should be the same as temperature of the
contents and be raised gradually and the bottles kept in the boiling water
for a required time.(HTST and LTLT Ask students).
At the start of sterilization the lids are left loose and the level of boiling water
should come up to the neck of the bottle.
When sterilization is over the mouth of bottle/jar should be immediately
closed tightly.

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Cooling and storage
It is the same as canning but products in bottle requires more attractive labels.
Canning and bottling vegs
General procedure is the same as fruits but a pressure cooker is required
(autoclave).
Filling, exhausting and sealing
The hot curried veg is put in plain can which is filled with 2% brine and then
exhausted for 10 minutes /till the temperature of the center of the can to
reach 77 to 820C.
The cans are then immediately sealed.
Processing
The sealed cans are placed in a pressure cooker at 115 0C for 40 to 75 minutes
depending on the size of container, the kind and maturity of vegs etc.

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Causes of spoilage of canned foods
1. Physical and chemical changes
2. Microorganisms
1. spoilage due to physical and chemical change
A) Swell
When the ends of normal and perfect can with good vacuum
becomes bulged it termed as swell.
The bulge is due to internal pressure of gases formed by microbial or
chemical action.
-hydrogen swell is due to hydrogen gas produced by the action of
food acids on the metal of a can.
Fe + 2HCl  Fe Cl2 + H2 
The food generally remains free of harmful microorganisms and is fit
for consumption.


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B) Springer-is a mild swell at one or both ends of a
can called springer.
Springer may be an initial stage of hydrogen swell
or insufficient exhausting or over filling of can.
The bulged ends (or at least one end) can be
pressed back to original position, but will again
become convex after some time.
C) Soft swell- at a more advanced stage ,swell
develops at both ends of can which can be
pressed and returned to normal position.
But it springs back when pressure is removed.
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D) Hard swell- is a final stage of a swell.
The bulge end can be pressed back to normal position
and can ultimately burst.
Precautions
A) use good quality tin plates
The greater porosity of the tin coating, the greater is
possibility of corrosion.
Un-laquered cans are more susceptible to hydrogen
swell.
B) Add about 0.5% citric acid to the syrup used for
canning fruits of low acidity such as mango , papaya,
cherry etc.
86
C) Before placing the lid a head space of about 1-2
cm should be left in the can which is to be
exhausted.
D) The lid should be placed firmly or clinched before
exhausting to ensure a high vacuum in the can.
E) Cans should be exhausted for a fairly long time
but with out affecting the quality unduly.
The larger the quantity of oxygen remaining in the
can, the greater would be the corrosion because
oxygen combines with the nascent hydrogen
formed by the action of acid on the tin container.

87
3. Rust- cans with external rust should be carefully examined.
After removing the rust and if swells show pitted appearance, it
should be rejected as spoiled.
-rust is mostly seen under the labels and affects the label later.
Rust formation is checked if cans are lacquered and externally
painted.
4. Foreign flavor
During preparation, filling, storage, transportation conditions
may become un-hygienic and and products may develop off
flavor
- If unsuitable metallic containers used a metallic flavor
develops.
5. Damage- rough handling of cans due to carelessness or
ignorance may damage them.
If cans show a sign leakage or severe distortion reject it. 88
6. Corrosion of cans- cans corrode due to the acidity of
the content, especially highly acidic fruits. The solution
is internal coating by lacquer.
7. leakage- might be
1. a defective sealing.
2. Excessive internal pressure due to microbial spoilage
which can be sufficient to burst the can.
3. Internal and external corrosion.
4. Mechanical damage during handling
5. Bursting- caused by excess pressure of gas due to
decomposition of food by microbes or hydrogen
formed by chemical reaction of food acids on tin plate.

89
8. Stack burning- if a processed cans are not allowed to cool
before storing, the contents remain hot for long time.
It results in discoloration, cooked flavor, and become very soft
So cool to about 390C before storage.
9. Discoloration- the cause for it might be biological causes like
enzymatic or non-enzymatic browning or metallic
contamination.
Mailard reaction occur by the combination of
1. Nitrogenous compound and sugar
2. ‘’ ‘’ and organic acid
3. Sugar and organic acids
4. Among organic acids themselves.

90
Some fruits contain tannins which react with iron of the tin
plates to form black ferric tannete.
Hydrogen sulfide gas may be produced by the reaction of
fruit’s acid and the tin coating which in turn react with iron
of the tin plate to form black iron sulfide.
Discoloration also occur by traces of copper from the metal
vessel used.
In contact with hydrogen sulfide copper forms black copper
sulfide.
Solutions- use glass containers
- Coat the interior of the can with lacquer.
- Eliminate the use of iron and copper.
Microbial spoilage
91
Flow sheet for preparation of fruits and vegs for
freezing Fully matured freezing
fruits/vegs

washing packing

keeping in
trimming
syrup/brine

cutting into pieces blanching/scalding

92
Freezing of fruits and vegetables
-By freezing microbial growth is inhibited completely.
-The action of food enzymes greatly retarded.
-The lower the storage temperature the slower will be
the rate of chemical and enzymatic reaction.
Rate of freezing depends on factors such as:
-method employed
-temperature
-circulation of air
-size and shape of package
-Kind of food etc.
93
 Compared with other preservation methods,
freezing requires the least amount of food
preparation before storage and under optimum
conditions it has the best nutrient, flavor, and
texture retention.
 At 00C (-18) fruits can usually retain good quality
for 12 months and vegs for 8-12 months.
 Increase in storage temperature results in
shorter shelf life. For each (100C) decrease in
temperature, the storage time approximately
cuts in half.
94
 Sliced foods (increased surface area), cured foods which is low a w and
fatty foods (rancidity) lose the quality more rapidly.
Freezing is cheaper than canning and frozen foods are of better quality
than canned products.
 However, for storage of frozen products uninterrupted supply of
electricity is needed.
Methods of freezing
1. Sharp and slow freezing- it is a freezing by circulation of air either
naturally or by fan’s aid.
 The to to be attained may vary from -15 to -29 0C and the freezing may
take from 3 to 72 hours.
 the result is that the ice crystals formed are large and this ruptures
the cells
 Nowadays, freezer rooms are maintained at -23 to 290C.

95
2. Quick freezing- in this method the food attains the
t0 of maximum ice crystal formation (0 to -140C) in
thirty minutes or less.
such a speed results in the formation of very small
ice crystals and hence minimum disturbance of of
the cell structure.
A. Quick freezing methods
Since liquids are good heat conductor foods can be
frozen rapidly by direct immersion in a liquid such
as brine or sugar solution at low t0
Eg. Berries in sugar solution, packed fruit juice and
concentrates are frozen in this manner.
96
Advantages
1. There is perfect contact between refrigerating medium and the
products. hence, the rate of heat transfer is very high.
2. Fruits are frozen with a coating of syrup which preserves color and
flavor during storage.
3. The frozen product is not a solid block because each piece is
separate.
Disadvantages
4. Brine is good refrigerating medium but cannot be used for fruits.
5. It is difficult to make syrup that will not become viscous at low t 0.
6. the refrigeration t0 must be carefully controlled, as at high t 0 the
medium will enter the product by osmosis.
At low t0 the medium may freeze solid
4. It is very difficult to maintain the medium at a definite
concentration and also to keep it free from dirt and
contamination
97
Advantages claimed for quick freeing over slow
freezing:
1. Smaller ice crystals are formed, hence there
is less mechanical destruction of intact cells
of food.
2. Period of ice formation is shorter, so there is
less time for diffusion of soluble material and
for separation of ice.
3. More rapid prevention of microbial growth.
4. More rapid slowing of enzyme action.

98
B. Air blast freezing
This refers vigorous circulation of cold air to
freeze the product.
The freezing is done by placing the food stuff on
trays or belts. which pass slowly through an
insulated tunnel containing air in it.
Here the air t0 is approximately -18 to -340C or
even lower.
The process is economical and many sizes and
shapes can be accommodated.

99
3. Cryogenic freezing
It is defined as freezing at very low to (below -600C )
Although most foods retain their quality by the above
methods a few (mushrooms, sliced tomato, whole
strawberry) requires ultrafast freezing.
4. De-hydro freezing
This is a process where freezing is produced by partial
dehydration.
In case of some fruits and vegs about 50% of the
moisture is removed by dehydration prior to freezing.
Dehydration does not cause deterioration and dehydro-
frozen foods are relatively more stable.
100
5. Freeze-drying
Here food is 1st frozen at -18oC on trays in the
lower chamber of freeze drier and the frozen
material dried (initially at 300C for 24 hours
and then at 200C ) under high vacuum n the
upper chamber.
Direct sublimation of the ice takes place without
passing through the intermediate liquid stage.
Mango pulp, orange juice concentrate, passion
fruits juice, guava pulp are dehydrated by this
method.
101
Changes during freezing
There is an expansion in the volume of frozen foods and ice crystals
form and grow in size.
Ice crystals does not preserve the food rather it damages it.
When water changes state from liquid to solid there is 9% increase in
volume which is responsible for many of the inferior textural
characteristics of frozen foods.
NB. Undesirable texture changes in thawed tomato and potato are
extreme examples.
It is claimed that ice crystals rupture f and veg tissue cells and even
mos. This is because:
The increased concentration of solutes in the cell hastens their
salting out, dehydration and de-naturation of proteins and cause
irreversible change in colloidal system.

102
Freezer burn is caused by sublimation of ice from the surface
of the food into the air inside the freezer.
Sublimation is possible when the water vapor pressure of the
ice is higher than the vapor pressure of the surrounding air.
The surface of freezer burned foods appears as dry and
brownish spots where the chemical changes takes place and
the tissue becomes tough and dry.
Wrapping to form moisture-proof barrier is is effective
preventive measure for freeze burn.
Freezing burn is more likely to occur with increased length of
time. So, labeling package with storage dates and keeping a
list on the outside of the freezer to aid inventory control
reduces the chance of freezer burn.

103
Denaturation
Denaturation is the alteration of proteins responsible for a decrease in
solubility are collectively called denaturation.
As the ionic concentration increases in freezing through a reduction in water
content, the proteins form bonds with other instead of water, and insoluble
complexes result.
Chemical changes
Microbial growth ceases at to below -20C for most foods but chemical reactions
continue in food even at 00C.
Such reactions include lipid oxidation, maillard and enzymatic browning, flavor
deterioration, protein insolubilization, and degradation of chlorophyll and
vitamins.
Quality changes not safety (microbial) changes are the reason for frozen food
discard.
Off odor may develop in frozen foods due to :
a) volatile compounds can accumulate in the tissue during storage
b) Off odor due to lipid oxidation

104
Color retention
Color retention in frozen foods is more easily achieved
than in canning, but problems still can occur.
Some non-enzymatic reactions may degrade color.
For instance, blanching green vegs slows the enzyme-
catalyzed conversion of chlorophyll.
This is not, however, a perfect treatment since during
blanching the heat and acid from the plant tissue
also causes conversion significantly. Blanching at
high to (93-1000C) for a short time (1-2 minutes)
cause less chlorophyll conversion than at lower to
(87-900C).

105
Fruits and vegs drying /dehydration and concentration
Both terms drying and dehydration means the removal of
water.
A. Drying- is generally used for drying under energy source
like sun and wind.
If fruits and vegs to be dried, they or their pieces should be
evenly spread in single layer on trays /boards and
exposed to sun .
There is no possibility of temperature and humidity control.
The hottest days are chosen to dry very fast, thus preventing
them from getting spoiled.
Quick removal of moisture prevents the growth of mos.

106
B) Dehydration
-means the process of removal of moisture by the application of
artificial heat under controlled condition of temperature,
humidity and air flow.
- The initial temperature of the dehydrator is usually 430C which is
gradually increased to 60 to 660C for vegs, and 66 to 710C for
fruits.
Factors that affect the rate of drying of horticulture produce.
1. Composition of raw materials
2. Size , shape and arrangement of stacking of produce.
3. Temperature as well as humidity and velocity of air.
4. Pressure (pressure or under-vacuum).
5. Heat transfer to surface (conduction, convection, radiation).

107
Advantages of dehydration over sun drying
1. Rapid process than sun drying.
2. Requires less flour area and fewer trays.
3. Done under very hygienic condition.
4. Sun drying is impossible in cloudy weather/rain
5. The color of dehydrated f and vegs remains
uniform due to uniform drying temperature.
The processing should be done in such a way that
food value, natural flavor, characterstics in
looking quality of the fresh material are retained
after drying/dehydration.
108
Techniques of drying/dehydration
1. Natural sun and solar drying.
It is cheap for transport cheap energy.
It is simple method to carry out.
The fresh crop should be ripe, don’t use poor quality.
Don’t use different stages of maturity mixed together.
Some varieties are unsuitable for drying than others because
they have irregular shape and there is a lot of wastage in
trimming and cutting such varieties.
Damaged parts attacked by insect or disease which are
discolored or have bad appearance or color must be
removed.
Onions are washed after they have been peeled.
109
It is important to have all slices/parts in one drying lot of the
same/even thickness or size.
Uneven slices or different sizes dry at different rate.
Banana, tomato and other f and vegs are sliced with stainless steel
knives.
As a general rule plums, grapes, figs, dates are dried as a whole
fruit without cutting/slicing.
Some f and veg like banana, apple and potato go brown very
quickly when left in the air after peeling or slicing.
This discoloration is due to an active enzyme called phenoloxidase.
To prevent browning keep under water until drying can be started.
Salt or sulfites in solution give better protection.
The main problem in sun drying is dust, rain, cloud weather.
Whenever the threat exists place under cover.

110
Dry well above ground level so not contaminated
by dust, insect, livestock or people. It also
allows the air to circulate freely around drying
material.
Metal netting must not be used because it
discolors the product.
Ideally the area should be exposed to wind which
speeds up drying(but the wind should be dry
and free of dust.
With 80 cm x 50 cm trays, the approximate load
for a tray is 3 kg.
111
Material should be spread in even layer.
During the first part of drying period, the material
should be stirred at least once in an hour. This
helps to dry faster and more evenly, prevent it
from sticking together.
Products for sun drying should be prepared early in
the day to ensure the material enjoy the full
effect of the sun during the early stage of drying.
At night the tray should be stacked in a ventilated
room or covered with canvas.
Plastic sheets should never be used for covering
112
Solar driers
Solar driers may be useful where:
1. If there is plenty of sun shine
2. Labor and land shortage
3. If cost of other conventional energy is prohibitive, erratic and
reduce fuel cost.
Shade drying
Used to products which can lose their color and / or turn brown if put
in direct sun light.
Products which have naturally vivid color like herbs, green and red
sweet pepper, chilly, green beans and okra give a more attractive
end product when they are dried in the shade.
The materials to be dried requires full air circulation.
Shade drying is carried out under a roof or thatch which has open
sides.

113
Osmotic dehydration
In this method the prepared fresh material is soaked in a heavy
(thick liquid sugar solution) and /or strong salt solution. Then the
material is sun or solar dried.
- During osmotic treatment the material losses some of its
moisture.
- The syrup or salt solution has a protective effect on color, flavor
and texture.
Common driers used for drying/dehydration
A) Air convention driers- it has some sort of insulated enclosure.
-Have a means of circulating air, heating the air, product output, and
device for collecting the dried product through the enclosure.
Movement of air is controlled by fans, blowers.

114
The two types of convention driers are:
1. Cabinet /tray drier
Food is loaded on trays in thin layers.
Fresh air enters the cabinet (A) and is drawn by the fan
through the heater coil (B). Then the air is blown across the
food trays to exhaust (G).
Screens filter out any dust in the air (E). Then the air passes
across and between trays.
Cabinet trays driers are usually used for small scale operation.
it operates with temperature of about 950C with air velocity
of 2.5 to 5.0m/sec.
Depending on the food and the destined final moisture, drying
time may be 10 or even 20 hours
115
Processing of fruits and vegetables into preserves
1. Jams and jellies
A. Jam- is a product made by boiling fruit pulp with
sufficient sugar to a reasonably thick consistency,
firm enough to hold the fruit tissue in position.
Fruits and vegs that can be used for jam making as an
example are: apple, peach, papaya, carrot,
strawberry, mango, tomato, grape, etc.
Jam can be prepared from one or many fruits combined.
Jam contains 0.5-0.6% acid and invert sugar that should
not be more than 40%.

116
Ingredients for making one kg of pulp:
Fruit or veg sugar(kg) citric acid(g) water(ml)
Carrot 0.75 2.5 200
Guava 0.75 2.5 150
Mango 0.75 1.5 50
Papaya 0.70 3.0 100
Strawberry 0.75 3.0 100

117
B. Jelly- is a semi-solid product prepared by boiling a clear,
strained solution of pectin containing fruit extracts free
from pulp, after the addition of sugar and acid.
A perfect jelly should be transparent, well set, but not too
stiff and should have original flavor of the fruit, attractive
color and keep its shape when removed from mould.
It should not be gummy, sticky, syrupy or have crystallized
sugar neither tough nor rubbery.
Fruits for jelly making eg. Guava, papaya, gooseberry etc.
But pineapple, strawberry, etc. can be used only after the
addition of pectin powder. This is because of these fruits
have low content of pectin.

118
Fruits are divided into four groups based on pectin
and acid content.
1. Rich in pectin and acid. Eg. Grape, lemon,
orange, etc.
2. Rich in pectin but low in acid. Eg. Apple, unripe
banana, ripe guava, peel of orange and grape
fruit.
3. Low in pectin, rich in acid, eg. Pineapple,
strawberry.
4. Low in pectin, low in acid. Eg. Ripe peach,
pomegranate, and other overripe fruit.
119
Jelly
Ingredients for one Littre extract
Fruit/veg sugar(kg) citric acid(g)
Guava 0.75 3
Papaya 0.75 3
Gooseberry 0.80 -
Important consideration in jelly making:
- pectin, acid, sugar(65%), water are four essential ingredients.
- Pectin is present in the form of calcium pectate is responsible for
firmness.
- Pectin is an important constituent in jelly
usually about 0.5-1.0% pectin extract is sufficient to produce good jelly.
- If pectin is content is higher, a firm and tough jelly is formed.
- If pectin is less, the jelly may fail to set.

120
Pectin- is a substance present in the form of calcium pectate is responsible
for fruit firmness.
Pectin is most important constituent of jelly.
At early immature stage of fruit it is insoluble in water (proto-pectin).it will
be converted to pectin by enzyme called proto pectinase during ripening
of fruit.
In over ripe fruit due to the presence of pectin methyl esterase (PME )
enzyme, the pectin gets largely converted to pectic acid which is water
insoluble.
This is one of the reasons that both immature and overripe fruits are not
suitable for making jelly.
Only ripe fruits are used.
Too little pectin gives a soft syrup instead of jel.
If pectin content is higher, a firm and tough jelly is formed, and if it is less
then the jelly may fail to set.
Usually about 0.5-1.0% pectin extract is sufficient to produce good jelly.

121
Alcohol test for pectin
One table spoon of strained extract taken in a beaker and
cooled.
Three table spoon of methylated spirit are poured gently
down the side of beaker which is rotated for mixing and
allowing to stand for a few minutes.
A) rent If extract is rich in pectin, a single transparent lump
or clot will form. An equal amount of sugar is to be
added to the extract for preparation of jelly marmalade.
B) If the extract is poor in pectin, numerous small granular
clots will be seen. Thus one half the amount of sugar is
added.

122
Marmalade
This is a fruit jelly generally made from citrus fruits in which
shredded peel is used as a suspended material.
Citrus marmalade are divided into two;
A. Jelly marmalade B. jam marmalade
Ingredients:-
Sweet orange 1 kg
Lime 0.5 kg
Pectin extract 1 Littre
Sugar 750 g
Shredded peel 62 g

123
Pickles
The preservation of food in common salt, vinegar, etc. is
known as pickling.
Pickles are good appetizers and add palatability of meal.
They stimulate the flow of gastric juice and thus help digestion.
Fruits are generally preserved in sweetened and spiced vinegar.
Vegetables are preserved in common salt.
Pickling is the result of fermentation by lactic acid forming
bacteria which are generally present in large number on the
surface of fresh vegetables and fruits.
These bacteria can grow in acid medium and the presence of
8-10% salt solution, where as the growth of the majority of
undesirable organisms is inhibited.

124
Lactic acid bacteria are most active at 300C so this
temperature must be maintained as far as
possible in the early stage of pickle making.
When vegetables placed in brine, it penetrates into
tissues of vegetables and soluble materials
include fermentable sugar and minerals.
The sugar serves as food for lactic acid bacteria
which convert them into lactic and other acids.
The acid-brine thus formed acts upon tissue to
produce the taste and aroma of pickle.

125
Growth of majority of spoilage organisms are
inhibited by brine containing 15% salt.
Lactic acid bacteria which is salt tolerant, can
thrive in brine 8-10% strength through
fermentation takes place fairly well even in 5%
brine.
Fermentation takes place up to 15% but stops at
20%.
So it is advisable to place vegetables in 10% salt
solution for vigorous lactic acid fermentation.

126
1. Preservation with salt
Salt improves taste, flavor and hardens the tissue
of vegetables and control fermentation.
Salt content 15% or above prevents mo.
Spoilage.
This preservation method is used only for vegs
which contain very little sugar. Hence,
sufficient lactic acid cannot be formed by
fermentation to act as preservative.

127
2. Preservation with vinegar
A number of fruits and vegs are preserved by vinegar
whose final concentration, in terms of acetic acid, in
finished pickle should not be less than 2%.
To prevent dilution of vinegar below the strength by
the water liberated from the tissues, the vegs or
fruits are generally placed in strong vinegar of about
10% strength for several days before pickling.
This treatment helps to expel the gases present in the
intercellular spaces of vegs tissues.
Papaya, mango, garlic, chilli, etc are preserved in
vinegar.
128
Fruit juice processing
Briefly fruit juice processing will be considered under the
following headings:
1. Selection of fruits: fruit should be fully ripe and of good
color, flavor, but not overripe, rotten, mouldy or diseased.
2. Extraction of juice : the aim here is to disrupt the cells of
juice bearing tissues and release the juice, finally to press
out the juice.
3. De-aeration : it should be done as early as possible. if late
it develops off-flavor and loss of vitamin C by the action
of oxidizing enzymes or chemical oxidation (by O2).
4. Vacuum or hot filling solve this problem.

129
5. Straining, filtering, clarifying:
Clarifying may reduce flavor of the juice and rob
much of character.
Juice owe its color to insoluble colored bodies.
so over-filtration will cause de-colorization.
So juice is merely coarsely screened or strained.
Heating also stabilizes the juice by destroying
pectic enzymes.
High speed centrifugal separation are used to
produce clear fruit juice.

130
6. Pasteurization and sterilization
Pasteurization is done for short time at high to
(Flash pasteurization) or for longer time at low to
The time and to depends on the pH of the juice.
Eg. At 850C for 4 minutes, at 880C for one
minute, a fraction of a minute at 910C.
Filtering t0 for cans of pasteurized juice is 170-
1800F.
Bottles can also be filled at 1800F

131
7. carbonation: is the solution of co2 in a liquid under
pressure.
Carbonation - suppresses fermentation
- Renders many juices more refreshing and palatable.
- For fruit juice low pressure-low t0 carbonation is preferred
the juice being cooled to about 320F before being charged
with co2 in glass lined steel tanks.
8. concentration by freezing: when water containing a
dissolved substance is progressively cooled pure ice is
formed at first and the concentration of the dissolved
substance in a liquid phase increases.
Then by removing the ice at suitable stage we can thus obtain
a highly concentrated liquid.
132
Blended juice
Two or more juice mixed to yield well balanced rightly flavored,
highly palatable and refreshing drink.
- Juice are blended so as to utilize a too sweet fruit (eg.
Grape), bitter fruit (eg. Grape fruit), too acidic fruit (eg. Sour
lime), strong flavored fruit (eg. guava, banana).
- Some common blended juices are:
- Grape 97% and lime3%
- Orange 50-75% and grape fruit25-50%
- Apple 97% and lime 3%
- Grape 50% and orange 50%
- Apple 74% and grape fruit 25% and 1% sugar
- Apple 37% and plum 62% and 15 sugar.

133
Fruit juice powder
friut juice can be converted in to free flowing
highly hygroscopic powder by freeze drying etc.
Powder has advantage of long shelf life and is
soluble in cold water. But during drying process
much of the characterstic flavor is lost which is
compensated by adding to the juice powder
natural fruit flavor in powder form.
Reconstitution of the powder mixture yields full
strength drink fruit juice.

134
Tomato processing
Nearly 30% of tomato produced is spoiled due to mishandling. Such
loses can be avoided by converting tomato into delicious product .
Large quantity of tomato are canned or made into tomato paste,
puree, juice, ketchup, sauce etc.
1. Tomato juice
A good quality juice should be deep red color, possess the
characterstic taste and flavor of tomato, contain about 0.4% acid
(in terms of citric acid), be uniform in appearance and have high
nutritive value.
F.P.O. specification for tomato juice, it should contain 0.5% salt, 1%
sugar, 0.4% acid, TSS 5%.
In home it is prepared by using 1 Littre juice, 10 g sugar, 5 g salt, 1 g
citric acid, 1 g sodium benzoate.

135
2. Tomato puree and paste
Tomato pulp is the fruit flesh without seed and skin.
Tomato puree is made from the flesh with or without added salt, containing no
less than 9% salt free tomato solids is known as medium tomato puree.
Tomato puree can be concentrated further to heavy tomato puree containing
not less than 12% solid.
If concentration is not less than 25% tomato solid it is called tomato paste. On
further concentration up to 33% or more solid it is called concentrated
tomato paste.
Tomato juice 5%
tomato soup 7%
Tomato puree 9%
Tomato paste 25%
Tomato ketchup 33% or more (with minimum acidity 1% as acetic acid).
Tomato pulp is prepared from ripe tomato in the same manner as tomato
juice.

136
Concentration is done by cooking the pulp in an open cooker or vacuum pan.
In open cooker most of the vitamins are destroyed and the product becomes
brown.
The use of vacuum pan, which is expensive, helps to preserve the nutrients
and also reduce the browning to a great extent.
In vacuum pan the juice is boiled at about 710C only.
How ever, ordinary tomato juice can be concentrated to 14-15% solid in an
open cooker.
But for obtaining higher concentration vacuum pan is required. Moreover,
sterilization is also possible in vacuum pan.
While cooking in an open container, a little butter or edible oil is added to
prevent foaming, burning and sticking.
The end point of cooking say of puree or paste is determined by hand
refractometer or by measuring the volume (a known volume of juice is
concentrated to a known volume of final product) with the help of a
measuring stick.

137
3. Tomato sauce and ketchup
It pulp is made from strained tomato juice or pulp and spices, salt, sugar and
vinegar, with or without onion, garlic, and contains not less than 12%
tomato solid and 25% total solids.
General considerations
About 1/3 of the sugar required is added at the time of commencement of
boiling to intensify and fix the red tomato color.
If the whole quantity of sugar is added initially , cooking time will be longer
and the quality of pulp will be adversely affected.
Generally, the sugar content in ketch up / sauce varies from 10-26%.
Salt bleaches the color so add towards the end of cooking process.
Spices are added in powdered form.
Instead of whole spice essential oils, oleoresins and spice extracts can be
used.

138
Salt content of the product should be 1.3-3.4%
Good quality vinegar is essential. The vinegar should contain 5-
5.5% acetic acid and be added when the product has
thickened sufficiently so the acid is not lost by volatilization.
Tomato sauce/ketch up generally contains 1.25-1.5% acetic acid.
In order to increase the viscosity and and prevent the separation
of pulp from clear juice, pectin can be added to the extent of
0.1-0.2% by weight of the finished product.
The ketch up should be filled hot (about 880C) to prevent
browning and loss of vitamins during subsequent storage.
It is advisable to add 0.025% sodium benzoate to the product
before bottling and then pasteurized the bottle as a
precaution against spoilage during the 3 to 4 weeks that
the ketch up remains in the opened bottle before it is used up.
139
Recipe
Tomato pulp 1 kg ginger chopped 10 g
Sugar 75 g garlic chopped 5 g
Salt 10 g red chili powder 5 g
Onion chopped 50 g
Cinnamon, coriander(large), cumin, black
pepper (powdered) 10 g each.
Cloves (headless) 5 in number, vinegar 25 ml and
sodium benzoate 0.25 g per kg of final
product.
140
Potato drying / dehydration
1. Sun drying: best dried product is obtained when
potato is pilled, sliced, and blanched for 3-5
minutes at 81-1000C.
The slices could be dried in 9-11 hours.
The dehydrated slices could be rehydrated to
normal shape, appearance and flavor if they
were soaked for 24 hours in water.
Peeling and trimming losses is lower in new potato,
but the yield of the dried product (22-29%) is
higher in old potato
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Potato powder
Potato powder is used in baking industry mainly to
reduce the protein content of the mix but also imparts
softness to bread and for better retention of moisture.
Potato powder can partially replace flour in preparation
of biscuit, for many soup mixes.
Potato flour can be prepared as follows:
1. By grinding sun dried potato slices
2. By grinding kiln dried potato shreds
3. By grinding dehydrated potato slices
4. By grinding dried, boiled, and mashed potato.

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