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From Čukelj, N., Novotni, D., 2019. Freezing of Bread. In: Ferranti, P., Berry,
E.M., Anderson, J.R. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Food Security and Sustainability, vol. 2,
pp. 498–502. Elsevier.
ISBN: 9780128126875
Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved
Elsevier
 Author's personal copy

Freezing of Bread

Nikolina Cukelj and Dubravka Novotni, Faculty of Food Technology and Biotechnology, University of Zagreb, Pierottijeva 6, Zagreb,
Croatia
© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Abstract 498
Technology of Bread Freezing 498
Freezing Process, Storage and Shelf-Life of Frozen Bread 499
Quality of Frozen Bread 499
Energy Efficiency of Bread Freezing 501
Perspectives of Frozen Bread 502
References 502

Abstract

Bread is a widely popular food product with a relatively short shelf-life that is mostly characterized by loss of bread freshness known
as staling. Staling includes a decrease of flavor and changes in bread texture such as increased crumb hardness and fracturability, as
well as decreased elasticity and solubility. All these factors negatively influence consumer acceptance and cause economical losses.
To reduce these problems, technology called bake-off became popular in the bakery industry. It involves partial bread baking,
freezing, frozen storage, and re-baking on demand. This technology enables consumers to have freshly baked bakery products in
retail and households throughout the whole day, with nutritive and sensory quality similar to the conventional bread. Conse-
quently, baking on demand reduces bread waste making the bakery industry more sustainable. Besides advantages, the technology
faces different shortcomings such as impaired volume and structure, changes in aroma, and crust flaking.
This chapter will give an overview of the benefits but also the challenges of partially baked bread freezing technology. Finally, the
energy efficiency of the process will be covered as well.

Technology of Bread Freezing

Bread has been present on mans’ plate from the earliest times, and still is a staple food for people all over the world. At the same
time it is one of the most wasted food items. Namely, 5%–10% world bread production is being thrown away (Axel et al., 2017),
whereas in European countries, e.g. Netherlands, even up to 30% of total bread production is being lost at different parts of the
bread production chain (Blonk, 2006; Zisopoulos et al., 2015). Half of the bread waste is produced in households, while other
half never reaches its end user causing economic losses both for the bakery industry and the consumer (Melikoglu and Webb,
2013). Moreover, bread waste is a significant contributor to the overall negative environmental impacts, such as greenhouse gas
emissions and material resource use (Amani and Gadde, 2015), although part of the industrial bread waste is habitually used as
animal feed, for fuel production, sourdough fermentation, or even beer production.
The main reason for high daily bread waste rates is its limited and very short shelf-life due to physical, microbiological and chem-
ical deterioration occurring soon after baking. In order to prolong bread shelf-life several strategies have been developed. Some
consider functional ingredients and improvers, while others employ technology of processing and/or packaging. Often, the combi-
nation of these three approaches gives the best results.
The introduction of bake-off technology (BOT) in the last few decades enabled the reduction of bread waste at both selling point
and households. As producers aimed to deliver bigger variety of hot and fresh baked goods to stores, restaurants and consumers’
homes regardless of the distance, the conventional bread making process was interrupted with an additional step of freezing. The
freezing step can occur after dough formation, partial proving, or shaping, as well as after partial or full baking. Fully baked frozen
bread was a pioneer of BOT, but not well-accepted as it differed from the freshly baked. Also it was more used for non-crispy prod-
ucts. The technology is now focused on partially baked (par-baked) frozen bread, since it requires only short final baking (10–
15 minutes) by minimum trained personnel. The final process is convenient and product has fresh bread characteristics. Further-
more, it provides microbiological safety without using costly packaging and/or preservatives. Thus, the partial baking and bread
freezing is today’s mainstream practice in the bakery industry and leading in terms of innovation (Almeida et al., 2014).
BOT assists the industry by lessening bread return, reducing the necessity of night shifts at bakery and highly trained people, and
by broadening the distribution area, including quick service restaurants, gas stations, coffee chains, hotels and catering industry, and
in-store bakeries. BOT also offers multiple benefits to consumers, such as diversity of reasonably priced fresh bakery products of
consistent quality, high nutritional value, as well as ethnical products, gluten-free and organic varieties, at any time of the day.
In addition, increasingly urbanized population prefers packaged breads because of prolonged shelf-life, easiness, hygiene and
health, and frozen bread market can fulfil all of those requirements.

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Frozen bakery market has continuously grown during the last decades. It is also projected that frozen bread market will further
grow in terms of consumption with the rate of over 8% in between 2017 and 2024, and at a CAGR of more than 3% by 2021, as
reported in “Frozen Bakery Market Size Growth – Industry Trends Report 2017–24“ (Global Market Insights, 2017) and “Global
Bread Market 2017–21 Report” (Technavio, 2017), respectively. Europe leads the global and the frozen bakery industry. In some
European countries, mostly Mediterranean, artisan bread made from scratch represents the highest share. In others, such as
Netherlands and UK, high market share takes industrial bread, which can be sold as fresh, long shelf-life or par-baked (Associ-
ation of Plant Bakers, 2013). Germany, France, Spain and UK are the main markets for bake-off bread, as reported in
BakingþBiscuit International (Keil, 2011).
Gluten-free bread should also not be forgotten as it is an important player in the sector of frozen bakery products. The percentage
of the population affected by wheat/gluten allergy, intolerance or sensitivity is not accurately known, but it has been estimated to be
in the range of 2%–10%. Gluten-free bread formulations are complex and the bread itself is more prone to crumb firming and
staling. This consequently raises the price as well as the amount of wasted products when compared to their wheat-counterparts.
For that reason, freezing of gluten-free breads and baking on consumers demand brings a solution for retarding the staling process
and reducing the economic loss (Sciarini et al., 2012).

Freezing Process, Storage and Shelf-Life of Frozen Bread

Par-baked bread has limited shelf-life unless frozen. Bread can be frozen in different ways, although the cold air blown over the
product is the most common and best for its quality. Blast freezing is relatively quick, depending on air temperature and velocity.
Faster freezing usually results with formation of smaller ice crystals. During storage ice crystals have tendency to grow, which causes
crumb weakening by damaging cell walls. With rapid freezing, there is also an increased frequency of ice crystal nucleation, which
enables the product to achieve a glassy state at higher temperature, resulting with an improved frozen storage stability (Pateras,
2007). Usually, an air freezer precooled to - 30  C enables sufficiently rapid freezing (Le-Bail et al., 2010). Slow freezing at the begin-
ning combined with rapid freezing in the second stage can benefit the final product quality (Hamdami et al., 2007).
In the course of freezing and thawing, par-baked bread stales since it had passed through the region of maximum starch retro-
gradation (þ4  C) two times. The longer it takes to pass through the critical temperature, the more significant will be the impact of
freezing/thawing cycle on bread staling (Cauvain, 1998); roughly, it is equivalent to 24 h staling at ambient temperature. In order to
prevent excessive stalling due to starch recrystallization, bread has to pass quickly through glass transition temperature and be stored
at temperatures below it. During thawing fast heat transfer should be also applied, as well as sufficient space between the products in
order to promote maximum air movement.
In addition to inadequate freezing, frozen storage can increase bread staling. In general, longer periods of frozen storage are asso-
ciated with a greater rate of staling and increased hardness, although this can be reduced by storage at lower temperatures (18  C)
(Le-Bail et al., 2010). Ronda and Roos (2011) showed that for gluten-free bread the lowest achievable temperature in common
home freezers (28  C) is beneficial for retaining the quality similar to that of fresh bread and lessening amylopectin recrystalli-
zation after thawing, while the frozen storage at 14  C led to a considerable loss of bread quality and accelerated staling. Authors
concluded that a frozen storage temperature of 20  C is satisfactory for quality preservation and lower staling rates after the thaw-
ing of gluten-free bread.
Moreover, the dehydration as a consequence of low frozen air humidity can be significant during frozen storage, which can be
prevented by adequate packaging and by avoiding temperature fluctuations. Partial defrosting and re-freezing of baked breads
should also be avoided since they might cause “freezer burn” – the formation of white opaque patches in the crumb or on the crust
of baked products (Pateras, 2007).
Frozen stored bread has limited oxidative stability; for white wheat bread it was estimated to 22 days (Novotni et al., 2011).
Nonetheless, many natural sources of antioxidants are suitable to enhance bread oxidative stability.
Second baking of par-baked bread reverses retrograded starch. Re-baked breads have a rather slower kinetic of staling in compar-
ison with conventional breads. Different baking regime influences stalling kinetics; the kinetics is slower for samples baked with
slow heating rate (as applied in par-baking) than for those baked with faster heating rate which subsequently results in a harder
crumb (Le-Bail et al., 2009; Novotni et al., 2013).

Quality of Frozen Bread

The quality of par-baked frozen breads includes several aspects, such as overall visual appearance, bread volume, crust quality,
crumb texture, aroma, nutritive value, and shelf-life. Any bigger defects in any of this traits can draw back consumers.
Freezing is usually performed on the bread that has been 80% - 90% baked. This way bread does not age or lose its freshness as
fully baked bread does, and can be stored for a longer period of time without microbiological deterioration. Those products are
usually pale with almost white crust color, or they can have light colored crust, which depends on the product and manufacturer
(Fig. 1). After par-baking, bread is rapidly cooled and frozen for storage. The partial baking kills the yeast and forms crumb, but it
does not generate desirable external characteristics, such as colored crunchy crust. When the final bread is desired, the par-baked
frozen bread can be fully baked at standard temperatures, in order to obtain fresh product with adequate color, crust characteristics

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500 Freezing of Bread

Figure 1 Partially baked frozen buns.

and crumb softness. Despite the obvious advantages, this interrupted process of classical bread making brings various technological,
sensory, and nutritional challenges.
Processing conditions, especially time and temperature of par-baking, are crucial for obtaining the quality of bread after thawing
and re-baking. Some authors suggest that the temperature in the center should reach 92–96  C, or even up to 98  C in order to
achieve sufficiently rigid structure and to minimize the volume contraction of par-baked bread (Aissa et al., 2010; Almeida
et al., 2014); although the time and temperature depend a lot on the type of dough and shape of the product, as well as the
oven characteristics. Usage of superheated steam can be also beneficial during the first baking.
The freezing step has the most significant effect on the quality of final product, while the period of frozen storage is another
critical parameter which can result in reduction of bread specific volume, moisture loss, increased crumb hardness, loss of aroma,
and product deterioration in general. Since freezing involves lowering of temperature and change from liquid into a solid phase,
bread physical properties and quality inevitably change. During the frozen storage formation of ice crystals can damage the
crumb structure, and freezing matrix can cause the shrinkage of the crumb. The crumb contraction could be explained by amylose
crystallization during cooling, and partial amylopectin recrystallization during freezing and frozen storage. The snow-white
discoloration (occurrence of freezing ring) comes as a consequence of drying out the crumb below the crust during frozen storage,
that is, due to moisture sublimation and diffusion from the moist center to the low moisture region of the crust. It usually
happens after longer time in the freezer. The more pronounced changes in par-baked frozen bread are observed in first days
or weeks of frozen storage, such as the reduction of volume which gets stable in later storage periods. Studies showed that the
period of frozen storage of bread with retained satisfactory sensory and physical properties is between 8 and 20 weeks (Almeida
et al., 2014).
From the technological and organoleptic point of view par-baked frozen breads, after the final bake-off, confront crust defects
such as flaking, the hard brittleness of white bread or the leathery toughness of fiber rich bread. Crust flaking is a problem which can
seriously compromise bread sensory quality, and it seems that freezing step is the most responsible for this phenomenon. Namely,
during freezing the ice under the crust accumulates forming an additional layer which after sudden evaporation during final baking
might cause detachment of the upper crust. Also, the tensile forces developed within bread matrix cannot relax in response to the
crumb contraction during cooling. These forces make bread more sensitive to mechanical and hydrothermal stresses during final
baking, which result in flaking phenomena (Ribotta and Le Bail, 2007). Besides the appearance of snow-white discoloration imme-
diately under the crust, the separation of the crust from the crumb can occur (Almeida et al., 2014). These negative effects of par-
baking, freezing, and frozen bread storage can be mostly overcome with process optimization and incorporation of various
improvers and functional ingredients.
Improvers include hydrocolloids, specific enzymes, antioxidants and emulsifiers, but also the sourdough as a natural improving
approach. They reduce retrogradation enthalpy for amylopectin and slow down crumb staling rate, both in gluten and gluten-free
bread (Bárcenas and Rosell, 2006; Sciarini et al., 2012). As par-baked bread goes through two-stages of baking it is prone to higher
water loss than conventional bread. In order to retain water, hydrocolloids, such as hydroxyl propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC), guar
gum, locust bean gum, xanthan gum, are often used. HPMC also showed to have protective effect against the damage caused by
freezing and frozen storage, due to a strong interaction between the HPMC chains and the bread crumb constituents, but also
due to interference with the ice crystals growth by limiting the diffusion of water molecules (Bárcenas and Rosell, 2006). Enzymes,
especially xylanases, have shown to have satisfactory performance in par-baked bread, positively influencing volume, crumb firm-
ness and amylopectin recrystallization (Almeida et al., 2014). Depending on the starter culture and amount, sourdough positively
affects many aspects of par-baked bread quality, particularly whole-meal and gluten-free varieties (Novotni et al., 2012; Novotni
et al., 2013).
One of the idea behind frozen storage of bread is perseverance of its aroma. The smell of freshly baked bread is one of the most
appealing among food scents, affecting appetite sensation and subsequent food intake regardless of hunger. Thus, the more attrac-
tive aroma of bread, the more likely the bread will be consumed. Pico et al. (2017) investigated if the frozen storage is suitable to
preserve the volatile profile of fully baked wheat bread samples. They showed that frozen storage in polyethylene bags at 21  C is
able to maintain aroma quality of the bread up to one week with average loss 24%, compared to room storage when average loss
was 58%. After one month of freezing, 5 of the 38 analyzed volatile compounds were completely lost, with average loss up to 53%.
On the other hand, Poinot et al. (2008) did not find differences in the aromatic profile between conventionally baked and par-
baked frozen bread, although they did not test the influence of storage time.

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Consumers interest in food that promotes and maintains energy, enhances satiety, or make consumers feel full after eating is
increasing. Some researchers have shown that par-baked bread can have lower glycemic index (GI) than conventionally baked
bread, consequently meaning that people eating it feel fuller for longer time. A comparative test showed that frozen par-baked wheat
rolls have a significantly lower GI than conventional breads (Borczak et al., 2008). This might happen for two reasons. First, the
lower degree of baking yields in less swelling of the starch granules and therefore reduces GI. The other proposed explanation is
the presence of resistant starch formed in wheat rolls during the heating–cooling cycles. The lower GI in frozen re-baked bread could
especially be beneficial for the gluten-free bread products, which often have high GI values. Up to now, there is not much literature
data regarding GI and nutritional quality of gluten-free frozen bread, although Novotni et al. (2012) showed that sourdough and
par-baked frozen process are the new and challenging approaches for the improvement of quality and GI of gluten-free bread.
Wholegrain bread is promoted to have less energy, but more fibers, minerals, vitamins, and antioxidants than white wheat bread.
However, it can contain large amount of phytates inhibiting the mineral bioavailability. Bread making process has impact on the
phytate content of fresh bread. It was shown that freezing and frozen storage act on the cell walls and favor the accessibility of added
fungal phytase to the phytate compounds (Rosell et al., 2009).
In general, nutritional quality of par-baked bread is conditioned mostly by formulation, but also by the processing parameters
and resultant physicochemical changes.

Energy Efficiency of Bread Freezing

Even though it contributes to the efficiency of supply chain, it can be argued if freezing of bread is sustainable. Bread baking is one of
the most energy demanding processes (around 4 MJ/kg), compared to other thermal food processing. Freezing is also an energy
intensive process, with a specific energy comparable to the energy needed for baking. Therefore, par-baked frozen technology
demands about 2.2 times as much energy as conventional bread making process, considering oven preheating, baking and freezing,
but not including the refrigeration energy for chilling after partial baking, for frozen storage and for the thawing of frozen par-baked
bread before final baking (Le-Bail et al., 2010). Although freezing process, storage and distribution of par-baked or fully baked bread
is energy demanding, it can be considered as an environmentally friendly manufacturing process. Indeed, when Zisopoulos et al.
(2015) compared fresh production chain, par-baked production chain and fermented breadcrumb bread technology, they demon-
strated that the industrial bread chain with the best thermodynamic performance is the par-baked production chain. The extent of
thermodynamic performance depended on the type of product and was better for the brown bun than for the white loaf. Par-baked
bun had the highest overall rational exergetic efficiency (n) (71.2%), the lowest specific exergy losses for the total system (SEL)
(5.4 MJ/kg brown bun), and a very low cumulative exergy losses (CEL) (4768 MJ).
According to Szargut (1980), exergy can be defined as “the amount of work obtainable when some matter is brought to a state of
thermodynamic equilibrium with the common components of its surrounding nature by means of reversible processes, involving
interaction only with the above mentioned components of nature”. Therefore, the exergy analysis is an objective sustainability
assessment method recently being applied in the food industry. The main advantage of exergy analysis is that it identifies thermo-
dynamically inefficient processes in a total system, allowing the expression of chemical and physical exergy in a single unit.
Zisopoulos et al. (2015) showed that the highest CEL occurs in the fresh brown bun production chain (5287 MJ/1000 kg dough
processed), mainly due to the wastage of bread (chemical exergy). Nonetheless, the CEL for the par-baked white bread production
chain (4860 MJ/1000 kg dough processed) is almost as high as for the fresh white bread production chain (4917 MJ/1000 kg dough
processed) because additional processes are required (freezing, refrigerated transport, baking at the retailer). This means that the
chemical exergy of the wasted bread that was saved in the par-baking process chain requires the similar amount of physical exergy.
Still, the par-baking technology shows the lowest SEL because the amount of bread delivered to the consumer is much higher
compared with the other technologies. Compared to fresh brown bun production chain and the fermented breadcrumb bread tech-
nology, par-baking technology has the highest material yield, and a high specific chemical exergy mostly as a result of the assump-
tion that no bread is wasted (baking on demand) and due to reasonable water consumption. Zisopoulos et al. (2015) pointed out
that preventing material losses (i.e. utilizing raw materials maximally) improves the exergetic efficiency of industrial bread chains.
Since the majority of the physical exergy losses occur at the baking, cooling and freezing steps, they suggested to thermodynam-
ically improve baking and cooling processes. For example, precooling of par-baked bread at around 40  C (in its center) before
freezing can aid energy efficiency of the freezing process. The application of vacuum cooling also reduces both baking and cooling
time, saves on energy, and optimizes bread quality in terms of crumb softness and crust crispiness. Further, freezing with a cold air
freezer with a set-point temperature of 30  C demands around 50% less energy than at 20  C (Le-Bail et al., 2010). Dynamic
freezing can be ended when the temperature of bread center is around 15 , and then frozen stored.
Even though a lot of efforts has been done to reduce the energy demand during the freezing process, the energy demanded
during the frozen storage can be much higher (Zisopoulos et al. 2015). After 3 months’ storage, the frozen storage energy represents
around 20% of the cumulated energy. Therefore, the frozen storage should not be too long whenever possible. In practice, frozen
bread is usually stored for 20 days (Amani and Gadde, 2015).
Innovation of bakery oven technologies is limited, due to the fragmented nature of the industry. Still, there are some examples
such as the application of the infrared baking, microwaves, quartz halogen lamps, jet air impingement, or their combination with
hot air to the bakery industry. Further, baking can be more efficient by e.g. heat recycling systems, insulating materials, or electronic
thermostats to control the oven temperature in real time, integrated set of technologies that improves the baker’s activity, and

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502 Freezing of Bread

recirculation of heated air. The used electricity can also come from renewable energy sources, hence making the baking process more
sustainable (LEO, n.d.).

Perspectives of Frozen Bread

The steady increase in the production of bread and bakery products is mainly related to the world population growth. Therefore, it
has to fulfil consumers’ needs while having the negative impact on the environment lowest as possible. BOT became in many cases
necessity if producers wish to follow, often simultaneously, trends like healthy nutrition, pleasure, and convenience. More nour-
ishing bakery products can be produced by including alternative flours, whole grains, fiber, prebiotics and probiotics, antioxidants
and other functional ingredients. Moreover, some consumers incline to and are willing to pay more for products which are specif-
ically environmentally friendly. To enhance ecological footprint, freezing and baking process need to be optimized. Many innova-
tive freezing processes such as impingement and hydro-fluidization, which are improved air blast and immersion methods,
respectively, are currently being researched and developed to improve freezing times and product quality. Innovations in baking
such as solid state radio frequency technology still require to be tested in bakery industry. With such innovations, consumers’ accep-
tance of technology benefits when producing high-quality products without preservatives should be augmented.

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