Unit 09

Basics of Laser Operation

Outcomes
Distinguish between spontaneous emission,
stimulated absorption and stimulated emission.

described population inversion, lasing threshold and

light amplification.

Do calculations

Explain and derive rate equations

Perform gain calculations.

 Introduction
Albert Einstein outlined the principle of laser operation
(stimulated emission) in 1917

It took 43 years until 1960, when Theodore Maiman at the

Hughes Research Labs. built the first laser, a pulsed
ruby laser

It consisted of a synthetic ruby rod surrounded by a helical

xenon flash lamp

The laser operated at 694.3 nm

 Introduction

• Laser is a device that emits light

• Light emitted by a laser is
electromagnetic radiation – UV,
visible and IR

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 Laser – what is it?

* A source of light
* A Laser is a device that controls the way that energised atoms
release photons

Light
Amplification by the
Stimulated
Emission of
Radiation

* Light emitted by a laser is non-ionizing electromagnetic radiation –

Ultraviolet, Visible and Infrared

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 Introduction
The laser is a light source that exhibits unique properties. Since the first
demonstration of a ruby laser by Theodore H Maiman in 1960, there
has been a phenomenal development in the field of lasers.

Lasers dominate our modern world in a variety of forms ranging from

tiny diode lasers in all CD and DVD players to large industrial lasers,
used extensively for cutting and welding, e.g. in automobile
manufacturing.

In fact, lasers are used in thousands of applications in every section of

modern society, including consumer electronics, information and
communications technology, entertainment, science and industry, the
medical field and defence. The laser triggered the photonics revolution
and is the foundation of modern photonics.
Introduction
Modern laser research involves fundamental laser physics, creative
development of novel laser concepts and advanced experimental work
and diagnosis. All this can lead to the development of new lasers,
which will fulfil the requirements of current and future demands in
science and industry.
Characteristics of Laser Light
Laser light has three special properties:

Coherence

Monochromaticity and

Collimation
(directionality)
Unique properties of lasers

Lasers range in size from tiny diode lasers to large systems the
size of a football field. All of these have three basic properties in
common, which separate lasers from ordinary light sources:

Monochromaticity: conventional light sources emit light

consisting of a broad range of wavelengths (i.e. colours); a laser,
on the other hand, emits only a very narrow range of
wavelengths.

Laser light is monochromatic meaning the laser light consists of

an extremely narrow band of wavelengths.

Monochromaticity is a requirement for coherence since photons

of varying wavelengths cannot be coherent.
Unique properties of lasers

Directionality: conventional light sources, like a light bulb,

emit light in all directions, while lasers can emit light that
spreads (‘diverges’) only very little with distance. However,
all laser beams eventually diverge as they move through
space.

Laser light is highly directional, it can travel over great

distances with minimal divergence or spreading

Collimation is the property of laser light to stay confined

over long distances
Unique properties of lasers

Coherence: Coherence states that all photons are at exactly

the same phase, as waves all crests and troughs are at the
same time

Some consider coherence to be the most fundamental

property of laser light, i.e. where all parts of the
electromagnetic waves are in phase.

Laser light is highly coherent, both spatially and temporally

These properties allow laser light to be used in almost
every area of modern life:

Manufacturing, medicine, communications, consumer

products and environmental sensing

The intense energy contained in a laser beam can be focused

down to a very small spot, much smaller than the diameter
of a human hair, allowing to cut, weld and drill holes with
extreme accuracy in steel and other materials
 Principles of laser operation
The word ‘laser‘ is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation.

The two most important basic principles for laser science are
1. the quantum nature of light

The quantum nature of light refers to light quantised into discrete

energy portions, nowadays called photons.

2. and a process called stimulated emission

both accredited to Einstein.

Basic Laser Components

A laser basically consists of three parts:

1. a resonant optical cavity called the optical

resonator
2. a laser gain medium (also called active laser
medium)
3. and a pump source to excite the particles in the
gain medium.
Basic Laser Components

A typical laser consists of three basic elements:

A suitable lasing or gain medium with metastable states to

support population inversion, which produces light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation

An energy pump to excite the medium and

A resonator or optical cavity which reflects photons back

and forth through the medium
Laser Operation
 Optical resonator

The resonator is an optical feedback device consisting of a pair of

carefully aligned plane or curved mirrors centred along the optical
axis

One mirror, the back-reflector, is chosen with high reflectivity, close

to 100 % (HR mirror)

This is accomplished using multilayer high-reflectivity coatings which

enhance reflectivity and suppress unwanted wavelengths

For example, to make a green He-Ne laser, the mirrors are highly
reflective at the green wavelength, not allowing feedback of the
unwanted laser lines
 Optical resonator

The other mirror, known as the output coupler, is partially

reflective to allow some of the energy to leave the cavity to
form the laser beam

The geometry of the mirrors and their separation determines

the distribution of the electromagnetic energy inside the
laser cavity

The greater the volume of electromagnetic energy between

the two mirrors, called the mode volume, the greater the gain
of the laser
 Optical resonator
The optical resonator consists of at least two mirrors between which
the light bounces up and down resonantly.

In most cases, one or more mirrors are curved, so that a resonant

optical mode forms. This mode defines the laser beam.

Modern dielectric mirrors used in lasers typically have a reflectivity

of up to 99,9%. However, one of the end mirrors is usually only
partially reflective, so that a portion of the light is transmitted.

This mirror is called the output coupler. The transmitted part forms
the laser output.

An optical cavity or resonator causes light to reflect back

and forth through the gain medium
 Gain medium
In order to operate, the laser requires a gain medium in the resonator, which
amplifies light and thus compensates for the loss through the output coupler.

The gain medium may be a gas, a liquid or a solid

Lasers are typically classified by the type of gain medium they employ (gas
laser, solid-state laser, dye laser, semiconductor laser, etc.).

The stimulated emission process takes place in the gain medium.

The gain medium amplifies light of any direction. However, only the light
that bounces up and down between the resonator mirrors is amplified many
times and therefore reaches a high intensity.

In a continuous wave (CW) laser, the gain in the laser gain medium and the
loss from the output coupler plus other losses are in equilibrium. The fact
that the photon energy has to match a given energy transition makes the
laser monochromatic.
Gain medium
 Gain medium
The most important requirement of the gain medium is its
ability to support a population inversion

For some lasers the gain medium consists of two parts:

A host medium and the lasing atoms

Nd:YAG laser (neodymium: yttrium aluminium garnet)

The YAG crystal is the host, the neodymium atoms are the
lasing atoms

Nd:YLF laser (neodymium: yttrium lithium fluoride)

The YLF crystal is the host, the neodymium atoms are the
lasing atoms
 Pumping
The active particles in the laser gain medium need to be in a state of
inversion for the laser to operate.

To reach this state requires some pumping process, which lifts them
into the required energy state. (Metastable state)

Pumping is the process of supplying energy to the laser medium

It may be accomplished electrical, thermal, optical, chemical

or nuclear

Pumps can be optical flash lamps, electrical discharges,

chemical reactions or thermal processes

Typical pumping processes are electrical current in a gas or

semiconductor laser or optical pumping in a solid-state or dye laser.
 Pumping
The goal of pumping is to create a population inversion

One has to ensure that the upper laser level is pumped

without pumping the lower laser level

In order to explain how laser light is generated we need to

think of light in terms of photons

The interaction of light and matter on an atomic or

molecular level form the basis for understanding laser action
Creating a Population Inversion
The goal of pumping is to create a population inversion

When energy is injected into a system at thermal equilibrium the

population of the electrons at higher energy levels becomes
greater than that of lower energy levels

Such a non-equilibrium condition is required for lasing. Energy is

injected selectively to pump an upper energy level from which
transitions occur to the lower level
Creating a Population Inversion
1. Absorption - An atom in a lower level absorbs a photon of frequency hν
and moves to an upper level.

2. Spontaneous Emission - An atom in an upper level can decay

spontaneously to the lower level and emit a photon of frequency hν.
This photon has a random direction and phase.

3. Stimulated Emission - An incident photon causes an upper level atom to

decay, emitting a “stimulated” photon whose properties are identical to
those of the incident photon. The term “stimulated” underlines the fact
that this kind of radiation only occurs if an incident photon is present.
The amplification arises due to the similarities between the incident and
emitted photons
Absorption of a Photon by an Atom
If an atom with an electron in a lower energy state is struck
by a photon of energy equal to the difference between the
lower and the upper energy level, the energy of the photon
will be absorbed by the atom and the photon ceases to exist

The electron in the lower energy level is lifted to the upper

energy level
Absorption of a photon
The electron is lifted to the upper energy level

For this type of photon absorption to occur, two conditions

must be satisfied:

1. The energy of the incoming photon must be equivalent to

the energy difference between the two atomic energy
levels

2. The electron of the absorbing atom must occupy the

lower energy level
Spontaneous Emission

All atoms or molecules strive to reach the lowest energy

level, since those are the most stable configurations

If an atom is lifted to a higher energy level, it may stay

there for a short period of time

The time it takes for one half of the atoms in a higher

energy level to return to a lower energy level is called the
life time or half life of this excited state

The half life may vary from 10-14 s to 0.01 s

It is typically 10 nanoseconds
In the ground state an atom can stay for ever

The ground state energy level will have the greatest number
of atoms, and higher energy levels will have fewer and
fewer atoms

If there is no external stimulus when an electron returns

from a higher energy level to a lower energy level and a
photon is emitted, the process is called
spontaneous emission

The light is emitted randomly with an arbitrary phase and

direction. The light is incoherent.
 Lasers: Spontaneous Emission
Absorption
1

Photon
0

1
Emission

0
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Spontaneous Emission of a Photon
The energy of the photon is equal to the difference between
the energy levels

The frequency in Hertz of the emitted photon is given by:

E2  E1
f 
h
E  E2  E1 is the photon energy

h is Planck’s constant (h = 4.14 x 10-15 eVs or 6.626 x 10-34 Js)

Stimulated Emission
If a photon of the correct wavelength, corresponding to a
transition from a lower energy level to a higher energy level,
is absorbed, an electron moves from a lower energy level to
a higher energy level

When a photon collides with an electron in the higher energy

state, the photon stimulates or forces the atom to release a
second photon, if the photon has the right energy.
The energy of the incident photon must be equal to the
difference between the higher energy level and the lower
energy level

This means the photon must have the correct wavelength

The emitted photon has exactly the same wavelength

and phase as the incident photon and going in the same
direction

The original photon beam is amplified, which is called

stimulated emission
 Lasers: Stimulated Emission
Absorption 1

Photon
0

1
Emission

Photon
0
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Stimulated Emission
Stimulated Emission
The two photons collide with two more atoms, producing
four identical photons, and so on

The process is light amplification by stimulated emission

of radiation (laser)

Stimulated emission can be repeated many times causing

an exponential increase in the number of photons emitted

The emitted radiation is coherent, monochromatic and

collimated
The probability of stimulated emission is the same as the
probability of stimulated absorption

Both processes take place at the same time

If the majority of electrons occupy the lower energy level

the dominant process is stimulated absorption

If the majority of electrons occupy the higher energy level

the dominant process is stimulated emission
To maintain lasing, we require a higher rate of stimulated
emission than stimulated absorption

For stimulated emission to be more likely to happen than

stimulated absorption, more atoms must be in the upper
energy state than lower energy state

This is called population inversion, and it does not occur

naturally

More atoms are always found in the lower energy states

and the material will absorb incident light

You need an external energy source to excite the atoms to a

higher energy state
To create a population inversion it is necessary for the lasing
atom to have an excited energy level with a relatively long
lifetime

This energy level is known as metastable state

To achieve laser action, three conditions must be met
The system must be in a state of population inversion
*More atoms in an excited state than the ground state

The excited state of the system must be a metastable state

*Its lifetime must be long compared to the normal
lifetime of an excited state

The emitted photons must be confined in the system long

enough to allow them to stimulate further emission from
other excited atoms
*This is achieved by using reflecting mirrors
An electrically pumped laser uses an electrical glow
discharge to excite atoms by collisions with electrons

In a He-Ne laser helium atoms in the ground state are excited

by electron collisions and lifted to metastable states

The helium atoms in the metastable states transfer their

energy by collisions with ground state neon atoms

The ground state neon atoms are lifted to the upper laser
level
Lasing Processes
We use the He-Ne laser to examine the basic laser principles
and processes

The He-Ne laser consists of a glass tube filled with helium

and neon at a ratio of 10 parts helium to 1 part neon

The internal pressure is 1.8 torr, allowing an electrical

discharge, provided by a high-voltage power supply

The neon atom is the active lasing species, which allows

lasing also in the infrared, orange, yellow and green.
 Lasing Processes

The discharge is developed between a small anode and a

large cathode through a tiny capillary tube, called the
plasma tube

At either end of the laser are cavity mirrors

One mirror is 100% reflecting, the output coupler is

reflecting 99% transmitting 1%

The tube glows in a bright pink colour

The common He-Ne laser has a red output at 632.8 nm

Lasing Processes

Helium – Neon Laser Tube

 HeNe laser energy diagram

*The energy level diagram for

Ne in a He-Ne laser
*The mixture of helium and
neon is confined to a glass tube
sealed at the ends by mirrors
*A high voltage applied causes
electrons to sweep through the
tube, producing excited states
*When the electron falls to E2
from E*3 in Ne, a 632.8 nm
photon is emitted
HeNe laser energy diagram
Pumping Mechanism in a Helium – Neon Laser
Example
An atom makes a transition from energy level E2 (-4.6 eV)
to E1 (-8 eV)

Find the frequency and wavelength of the emitted photon

Solution

E2  E1  4.6 eV  (8) eV
f  
h 4.14 x 10 15 eV  s
3.4 eV
 15
 821 THz
4.14 x 10 eV  s
 c 3 x 108 m / s
c f    365 nm
f 821 THz
The emitted photon is in the ultraviolet, not visible
Example

Calculate the wavelength of a photon which is emitted

spontaneously when a sodium atom makes a transition
from the 2.1 eV energy state to the ground state

34 8
hc 6.626 x 10 x 3 x 10
  19
 590 nm
E [J ] 2.1 x 1.602 x 10
Summary
To explain how laser light is generated, we need first to investigate
the energy transition phenomena in atoms or molecules. These
phenomena include: spontaneous emission, stimulated
emission/absorption and nonradiative decay.

According to quantum mechanics, the electrons of atoms can take

different energy states, say E1, E2, E3, etc., E1<E2<E3<…. Lower
energy level is more stable than higher energy levels, so electrons at
high energy levels tend to decay to low energy levels, the energy
difference between the two levels can be given out as
electromagnetic radiation. This process is called Spontaneous
Radiation.

The relationship is: E2 - E1 = hf0

Where E2 is the upper energy level, E1 is the lower energy level, h is
Plank’s constant, f0 is frequency of the radiated EM wave.
Summary
Note also that the energy difference between the two levels can decay in
forms other than radiative decay or , spontaneous radiation which is called
Nonradiative Decay. The energy difference can change into kinetic energy
or internal energy through collisions with surrounding atoms, molecules
or walls.

When external EM waves of frequency n0 are incident on the material

whose atoms initially are at energy level E2 and n0 is very near to the
transition frequency between E2 and E1, there is a finite probability that
the incident waves will force the atoms to undergo transition E2à E1.
Each such transition gives out an EM wave (a photon), while the incident
wave (incident photon) still exists. Then we have two photons. The above
transition process is caused by external excitation, so it is called
Stimulated Radiation. The incident EM should have a frequency very
close to that of the atoms, and this resonance makes the fundamental
difference between spontaneous radiation and stimulated radiation.
Summary
In the case of spontaneous emission, the radiation is in all directions
and in random phases, while in stimulated radiation, the emitted waves
of any atoms are in the same direction and in the same phase with the
incident wave.
If the atom is initially at level E1, if this is the ground level, the atom
will remain in this level unless got excited. When an EM wave of
frequency n0 is incident on the material, there is a finite probability
that the atom will absorb the incident energy and jump to energy
level E2. This process is called Stimulated Absorption.
Normally the number of atoms at lower energy levels is larger than
atoms at higher levels. Stimulated radiation/absorption, spontaneous
emission and nonradiative decay are going on in the same time. Even
if we ignore the decay factors, stimulated absorption still dominates
over stimulated radiation, the incident EM wave can not be amplified
in this case. Amplification of incident wave is possible only when the
number of upper level atoms is greater than that of lower level atoms.
This case is called Population Inversion.
Rate Equations and Criteria for Lasing
The criteria for laser gain are: the rate of stimulated emission
must exceed that of spontaneous emission plus that of all the
losses
The rate of absorption of photons depends on the number of
atoms in the lower energy state as well as the energy of
incident photons
r absorption  B12 N 1 
B12 is the Einstein coefficient describing the probability of
stimulated absorption
N1 is the number of atoms in the lower energy state
 is the energy density, which presents the number of
photons that have the exact energy for the transition
between the lower and the upper energy level
The rate of stimulated emission is:

rstimulated emission  B21 N 2 

B21 is the Einstein coefficient describing the probability of

stimulated emission

N2 is the number of atoms in the upper energy state

is the energy density, which presents the number of

photons that have the exact energy for the transition
between the lower and the upper energy level
The rate of spontaneous emission is:
rspon tan eous emission  A21 N 2
A21 is the Einstein coefficient describing the probability of
spontaneous emission

This is the transition probability per unit time that an

electron currently in level 2 will go to level 1.

A21 is related to the spontaneous lifetime

1
A21 

 is the spontaneous radiative lifetime of the upper energy
Level (decay rate)
The effect of lifetime can be illustrated on a TEA (transverse
electric discharge at atmospheric pressure) nitrogen laser

The upper lasing level lifetime at atmospheric pressure is

1.5 ns

Because of this short lifetime the electrodes are transverse,

parallel to the discharge tube, preventing the spontaneous
decay before amplifying the laser pulse
We assume that in equilibrium there are n2 atoms in level 2
and n1 in level 1.

It implies that the rate from level 1 to 2 equals the rate from
level 2 to 1. Therefore,

rstimulated absorption  rstimulated emission  rspon tan eous emission

B12 N1   B21 N 2   A21 N 2

We use Planck’s blackbody radiation law and Boltzmann’s
law to solve for the energy density

 
8 𝜋 h 𝑣3 1
𝜌= 3
𝑐 exp ( 𝐸/ 𝑘𝑇 ) −1

 
If we substitute Boltzmann’s law:

 
8 𝜋 h 𝑣3 1
𝜌= 3
𝑐 𝑁1/ 𝑁 2−1
Using the original rate equation:

 ( B12 N1  B21 N 2 )  A21 N 2

B12  B21  B
A21 N 2 A21
 
B ( N1  N 2 ) B ( N1 / N 2  1)
Replacing :

 
We find B21  B12

and A21 8  h 3

B21 c3
 Consider the ratio of Stimulated to spontaneous emission.

The rate of stimulated emission must exceed the rate of

spontaneous emission such that
rstimulated emission B21 N 2  B21  c3
  
rspon tan eous emission A21 N 2 A21 8hv 3
For this ratio to be large the energy density of the incident
photons must be high

Unless the gain of the medium is extremely high in order to

create a huge flux of photons, cavity mirrors will be required
to contain photons within the cavity
Lets consider the rate of absorption of photons.

We must ensure that photons emitted are not absorbed within

the medium itself

If the medium absorbs more photons than were emitted by

stimulated emission, the laser cannot work

This means we need a population inversion

rstimulated emission N2

rstimulated absorption N1
Example
1. Calculate the temperature required to allow the rate of stimulated
emission to exceed the rate of spontaneous emission for a system
emitting radiation at 1064 nm (Nd:YAG laser output)

rstimulated emission B21 N 2  B21 

 
rspon tan eous emission A21 N 2 A21
A21 8  h 3

B21 c3
3
 
8 𝜋 h𝑣 1
𝜌= 3
𝑐 exp ( 𝐸/ 𝑘𝑇 ) −1
Problems from Csele
1. Calculate the temperature required to allow the rate of
stimulated emission to exceed the rate of spontaneous
emission for a system emitting radiation at 1064 nm
(Nd:YAG laser output).

To do this set the ratio in equation:

rstimulated emission B21 N 2 B21

 
rspon tan eous emission A21 N 2 A21

equal to 1 and solve.

  23 J  34
k  1.38 x 10 K  h  6.626 x x10 Js
 
m
c  3 x 10  
8

s

 
8 𝜋 h 𝑣3 1
𝜌= 3
𝑐 exp ( 𝐸/ 𝑘𝑇 ) −1

A21 8  h 3
 3
B21 c
Answer:
rstimulated emission B21 N 2  B21
 
rspontan eous emission A21 N 2 A21

  𝐵21 𝜌 𝐵21 8 𝜋 h 𝑣 3 1
= 3
𝐴 21 𝐴 21 𝑐 exp ( 𝐸/ 𝑘𝑇 ) −1

A21 8  h 3
 3
B21 c
   𝐵21 𝜌 𝑐
3
8 𝜋 h𝑣
3
1
= 3 3
𝐴 21 8𝜋 h𝑣 𝑐 exp ( 𝐸/ 𝑘𝑇 ) − 1

=1
 

 
=1
exp ( 𝐸/ 𝑘𝑇 ) −1=1
 

   
  23 J  34
k  1.38 x 10 K  h  6.626 x x10 Js
 
m
c  3 x 10  
8

s
34 8
h c 6.626 x 10 J s x 3 x 10 m / s
E 
 1064 x 10 9 m
34 8
6.626 x 3 10 10 19
 9
 1.87 x 10 J
1064 10
 1.87 x 10 19 J
T  23
1.38 x 10 J / K x 0.69

T  1.9549 x 10 K
4
Example

Consider a Nd:YAG laser that is operating at a temperature of

1000 K. The laser emits a wavelength of 1064 nm and the
lower laser level of Nd:YAG is only 0.2 eV above the ground
state. If the rod contains a total of 1 x 1019 active lasing ions,
calculate the number of ions that must be excited to the upper
laser level to ensure that population inversion occurs.
Answer:

Boltzmann distribution :
 E 
N  N 0 exp  
 kT 
 23  J   34
k  1.38 x 10   h  6.626 x x10 Js
K 
m
1 eV  1.602 x 10 19
J c  3 x 10  
8

s
Answer:

 23 J 
N 0  1 x 10 ions
19
k  1.38 x 10  K 

19  J 
T  1000 K E  0.2 eV x 1.602 x 10  eV 
 
 E 
N  N 0 exp  
 kT 
  0.2 eV x 1.602 x 10 J / eV 19

N  10 exp 
19
 23

 1.38 x 10 J / K x 1000 K 
 2. 32 x 10 1
x 10 19

 10 exp 
19
 23 3

 10 x 10 
N  9.82 x 10 ions
17

This is the minimum of excited ions to achieve population

inversion
Laser Gain (Optical gain)

Laser gain is a measure of how well a medium amplifies

photons by stimulated emission

Consider a stream of photons traveling down a laser cavity

and stimulating excited atoms to emit photons of the same
frequency and phase – this is laser gain
Laser Gain (Optical gain)
Thinking of the stream of photons traveling down the tube as
an electromagnetic wave,

we can see that the power of the wave increases if the rate of
stimulated emissions exceeds that of spontaneous emissions.

As the wave travels farther down the tube, the power

increases as a function of length.
The power of the electromagnetic wave increases by:

power gain = exp(gx)

where g is the optical gain coefficient of the laser medium

and x is the distance down the cavity
Laser Gain (Optical gain)

the power increases exponentially as the wave travels down

the tube.

The gain coefficient, g, represents the optical power gain per

unit length. Mathematically, it can be expressed as P x
P
g
P x

The unit of g is length-1 (e.g. m-1)

Laser Gain (Optical gain)

Consider a stream of photons with power P enters the gain

medium, which has length ∆x, and exits with increased
power P + ∆P.

The longer the lasing medium, the more power will increase
per pass down the cavity. 
 Laser Gain Calculation

The gain of a laser may be expressed in various ways, such as

percent per pass, percent per meter or m-1

Consider a small pulsed mercury-ion laser which has a tube

80 cm long and a gain of 12% per pass.

Each time the beam traverses the gain medium (the laser
tube) it gains 12% in power

This gain may also be expressed as 15% per meter

12%
 15% Or 0.15m 1

0.8
Laser Gain Calculation

We must consider the losses.

Assuming that we use aluminum mirrors, which reflect

about 85% of incident light, this laser cannot work.
The loss at one mirror alone (15% loss) is greater than the
gain down the entire tube.

Total losses in the laser, including the portion we extract

as our output beam, losses in the mirrors, losses at the
tube windows, and absorption (or reabsorption) within
the tube itself, cannot exceed 12% in this case.

Clearly, laser cavities must be designed for minimal loss

To keep the losses down we must use dielectric mirrors

These mirrors use multiple thin-film layers.

A dielectric mirror is a mirror based on multiple thin layers

of (usually two) different transparent optical materials
(dielectric coatings, thin-film coatings, interference
coatings).

The length of the laser medium affects the gain

The longer the tube the higher the gain

Laser Gain Calculation
Consider a small pulsed mercury-ion laser which has a tube 0.1 m long
and a gain of 50% per meter. Assume that the total reflector has a loss of
0.1% (these are special, dielectric mirrors).

Most ion lasers have Brewster windows; in this case, assume that each
has a loss of 0.8%.

Finally, the tube has an attenuation of 0.1 m-1. The parameters are
included in Figure below.

Given these parameters, calculate the maximum transmission, in

percent, that can be extracted through one of the mirrors as an output
beam.

To solve this, sum the total loss in the laser on a round trip through the
tube
Total loss is calculated as:
1 % (attenuation during forward pass) +
0.8 % (exiting the tube via the Brewster window) +
0.1 % (total reflector loss) +
0.8 % (entering the tube via the Brewster window) +
1 % (attenuation during backward pass) +
0.8 % (exiting the tube via the Brewster window) +
0.8 % (entering the tube via the Brewster window) = 5.3 %

Total gain is calculated as two passes of 5% each, or 10 %

10 % - 5.3 % = 4.7 %
The output coupler could impose a loss of 4.7 %, which
includes losses in the mirror itself plus the output power
transmitted.

To achieve laser operation, the gain needs to exceed the loss.

In reality, the output transmission of the mirror would be

designed to be about 2 %, to ensure that the energy density
inside the laser cavity is more than enough to sustain
laser action

To keep the losses low, dielectric mirrors are required and the
Brewster windows must be antireflection coated
Some lasers have huge gains, so high that light is amplified
to a usable level in a single pass

Such lasers are termed superradiant and operate without

feedback. Nitrogen lasers are superradiant

A single rear cavity mirror boosts the power output

In diode lasers, lasing only starts after the threshold current

is reached

There are physical limits on output power

In diode lasers a high current density will melt the

semiconductor crystal and destroy the laser
Output Power versus Current for a Diode Laser
Calculating Threshold Gain
When the laser is operating at steady-state conditions (e.g.
constant optical power output), the net gain in the laser must
be one

If the net gain were greater than one, the output power would
increase

If the net gain were less than one, the output power would
decrease until the laser ceases to operate

To achieve laser operation, the gain needs to exceed the loss.

To calculate the threshold for lasing, we first have to deal

with the various types of losses.
Calculating Threshold Gain
There are two types losses in lasers: one type could be called ‘good loss’ and
the other ‘bad loss’

As you know, at least one of the mirrors in the laser is not perfectly (100%)
reflective (i.e. it is partially transparent). This allows light to escape from the
cavity and give rise to what we call the ‘laser beam’.

This obviously results in power being lost from the cavity.

Other, more undesirable losses are related to radiation being lost without any
good coming from it, such as:
absorption and scattering by mirrors
absorption and scattering by the laser material
diffraction at the mirrors edges, etc

To help simplify the arithmetic we can combine all these undesirable losses
into a single loss coefficient, α. Therefore γ represents the sum of the losses
not related to the reflectivity of the mirrors.
The power gained must be equal to the power lost through
absorption and the portion extracted as output beam

The power gained during one round trip is exp(g 2x)

g is the gain coefficient, and x is the length of the gain
medium which is passed twice

The power lost during one round trip is exp(- 2x)

 is the loss coefficient, with the exception of the mirrors
themselves

The losses from the mirrors are the reflectivities labelled

R1 and R2

A perfect mirror with 100 % reflection, has an R value of one

Equating these parameters yields:

net gain = laser gain x loss x loss at mirror 1

x loss at mirror 2
1  exp( g 2 x) exp(  2 x) R1 R2
1
exp[2 x ( g   )] 
R1 R2
1  1 
g  ln 
2 x  R1 R2 
1  1 
g threshold    ln 
2 x  R1 R2 
Example: Gain and Loss in a He-Ne Laser

A He-Ne laser has a power loss of 0.05 m-1

The length of the plasma tube is 20 cm
The back reflector has a reflectivity of 99.9%
The output coupler has a reflectivity of 95%

Calculate the threshold gain

1  1 
g threshold    ln 
Solution: 2 x  R1 R2 
1  1 
 0.05  ln 
0.4  0.999 x 0.95 
 0.181 m 1
This is an excessive high gain requirement for a He-Ne laser

The laser would probably not oscillate

To allow the laser to work, either the plasma tube must be

made longer or the reflectivity of the output coupler must be
increased
We can also calculate number of ions that must be excited
to the upper lasing level to ensure that population
inversion occurs.

 
Example:

Hydrogen fluoride (HF) laser operating at a temperature

of 980K, emits a wavelength of 3 μm and the lower
lasing level is 0.1 eV above the ground level. If the rod
contains a total of active lasing ions. Calculate the
number of ions that must be excited to the upper lasing
level to ensure that population inversion occurs.
Quiz

Consider a small pulsed mercury-ion laser which has a tube 0.2 m

long and a gain of 55% per meter. Assume that the total reflector has
a loss of 0.1% (these are special, dielectric mirrors).

Most ion lasers have Brewster windows; in this case, assume that
each has a loss of 0.7%.

Finally, the tube has an attenuation of 0.1 m-1. Given these

parameters, calculate the maximum transmission, in percent, that can
be extracted through one of the mirrors as an output beam.
Gain Measurement
With the threshold gain one can determine the minimum
required reflectivities of the mirrors as well the allowed
insertion losses in the cavity

The gain and the losses can be measured

As example we select the He-Ne laser

The light from a He-Ne laser is passed through the bore of

a bare He-Ne plasma tube (the mirrors are replaced by
windows)

If the plasma tube is energized the light beam is amplified

and we can measure gain
If the plasma tube is not energized the light beam is
attenuated by absorption and we measure losses

Experimental Setup for Measuring the Gain of a Laser

Actual Experimental Setup for Measuring Gain
Another method to measure the gain is to insert a variable
loss into the cavity of a working laser

The loss may be a slide of glass at a certain angle

At Brewster angle there will be zero loss in the parallel

polarization component

By varying the angle of the glass slide to the point where

lasing is extinguished
one may determine the value of the inserted loss

Summing other losses in the laser, such as that of the output

coupler, loss at the tube windows, and attenuation in the tube
itself, one may calculate the gain of the lasing medium
Second experimental method to determine laser gain
The figure shows an experimental arrangement in which a
He-Ne tube with external mirrors is set up

The variable loss is a glass slide on a rotating stage

The slide is rotated until the laser ceases to oscillate

This incident angle θi is substituted into Fresnel’s equations

To find the refracted angle θr we use Snell’s law

sin i sin  r

nr ni
This value too is inserted into the Fresnel’s equations

We find now the reflection loss for both, the vertical and
horizontal polarization component
2
 n cos i  cos  r 
R p   
 n cos i  cos  r 

2
 cos i  n cos  r 
Rs   
 cos i  n cos  r 
n is the refractive index of glass
The polarization component Rp is parallel to the Brewster
window and is of concern here

The vertical polarization component yields a minimum loss

of about 6%, which is far too high to allow laser oscillation

Using the Fresnel equations, we can determine the reflection

loss of the glass for the parallel polarization component

This reflection loss counts for each glass-to-air interface and

must be multiplied by 2 for a single pass through the slide
Reflective loss of an intra cavity glass slide as a function of
the angle θ
Inserting this variable loss into the cavity between the plasma
tube and any one cavity mirror, we find the output power as
a function of θ

Output power as a function of the angle θ

The output power as a function of inserted loss is plotted
The glass slide has two surfaces, therefore the values must
be multiplied by 2

Output Power as a Function of Inserted Loss

Example: Gain of a He-Ne Laser
A glass slide with an index of refraction of 1.46 is used as
variable loss

At Brewster’s angle the laser output is maximum

Lasing ceases at an incident angle θ1 = 45.5 degrees

Using Snell’s law and n1 = 1 for air, we find for the angle of
refraction θ2 = 29.24 degrees
n1 sin  2

n2 sin 1
Substituting these values into the Fresnel equation for
reflectivity in the parallel plane:

n2 cos 1  n1 cos  2
r
n2 cos 1  n1 cos  2

Squaring the reflection coefficient to get the intensity

coefficient, the reflectivity θ1 = 45.5 degrees is found to
be 0.00560

For two surfaces the reflection loss for one pass through the
slide is 0.0112
Summing this loss with other losses in the laser, and
knowing that gain equals loss when the laser begins to
oscillate, we can determine the gain of the laser

One round trip consists of two passes through the plasma

tube (two gains), one reflection (loss) off each cavity mirror,
four passes through the tube windows (one at each end of the
tube), and two passes through the variable loss element

[total round-trip loss] = 2 x [attenuation in the tube] + 2 x

[insertion loss] + 4 x [loss at the tube windows] + [loss at the
high reflecting mirror] + [loss at the output coupler mirror]
Typical values for He-Ne laser losses include:

 Loss at the output coupler mirror of 1.0%

(transmission)
 Loss at the high reflector is negligible
reflectivity is better than 99.9995%
loss is less than 0.0005%
 Attenuation in the laser medium is approximately
0.05 m-1, for a 35 cm tube, it is 0.0175
 Loss at each window is approximately 0.25% per pass
(plane, antireflection coated windows)

Total losses sum to 0.0817 for two passes through the

plasma tube. For one pass loss = gain = 0.0408
This is the gain for a 29.5 cm long tube  0.138 m-1
Linewidth

A spectrum contains a series of lines whose wavelengths

are determined by the energy levels of the atoms

Even the sharpest spectral line contains a range of

wavelengths, called the fluorescent linewidth

The temporal properties of a laser are dependent on the

laser gain medium

Any gain medium will amplify light over the fluorescent

linewidth for the energy level transition involved
Fluorescent Linewidth (Gain Curve)
The width and height of the gain curve depend on the type
of active medium, its temperature and the magnitude of
population inversion

Each laser exhibits its own gain curve

The spectral width is expressed in frequency units rather

than in wavelengths units

Typical fluorescent linewidths range from 1.5 GHz for

neon (He-Ne laser) to 30 GHz for neodymium
(Nd:YAG laser)
A laser line has a finite band width

The natural linewidth arises from Heisenberg’s uncertainty

principle

This linewidth is broadened homogeneously by pressure

broadening and

inhomogeneously by the Doppler effect

Doppler broadening arises because gas molecules in a laser
tube are often hot and travel at high speeds

Assuming that the average speed of a gas molecule is v and

that gas molecules can move in either direction, the spread
in frequency will be:
 v
   0 1  
 c
where v is the output frequency of the laser,
c
0  the centre frequency and
0
v the average velocity of the gas molecules
If the molecule moves towards the observer when emitting
a photon, the frequency increases

If the molecule moves away from the observer when emitting

a photon, the frequency decreases

This yields a minimum and a maximum for the frequency,

which will define the bandwidth or gain curve of the laser

The easy way to calculate the velocity of the gas molecules is

to use kinematics and equate kinetic energy to thermal energy

1 2 1 kT
mv  k T v
2 2 m
The velocities of gas molecules follow a Maxwell distribution

Using such a distribution will give a more precise answer

2kT ln 2
  2 0 2
Mc
 is the output bandwidth in Hertz
 0 the centre frequency
k the Boltzmann constant
T the temperature in Kelvin
M the atomic mass and
c the speed of light
Example: Linewidth of a He-Ne laser

The He-Ne laser has a gas temperature in the plasma tube

of 150 0C or 423 K and the wavelength is 632.8 nm

The active lasing atom is neon, helium is necessary to pump

the upper laser level

Neon has an atomic number of 10 and an atomic mass of 20

We calculate the mass of the neon atom

20 amu  23
23 1
 3.32 x 10 g
6.02 x 10 mol
 We substitute the mass of the neon atom into the Maxwell
distribution formula:

2kT ln 2
  2  0
Mc 2
 3 x 108 m / s  2(1.38 x 10  23 J / K )(423 K ) ln 2
 2 9
  26 8 2
 632 . 8 x 10 m  3 .32 x 10 kg (3 x 10 m / s )
 1.56 GHz
The linewidth is a function of the temperature
In a He-Ne laser the temperature never exceeds 450 K
In an argon-ion laser the plasma temperature can reach
5000 K

Spectral Linewidth versus Temperature

Doppler broadening applies not only to gas lasers where gas
molecules may move freely in a tube, but also to solid-state
lasers

Here the lattice of a solid-state crystal will vibrate with

increasing temperature

The vibration broadens the energy band and hence the

spectral linewidth

The spectral linewidth or gain curve is shown in the next

picture
Spectral Linewidth or Gain Curve
The cavity itself acts as an interferometer resonant only at
certain wavelengths

These wavelengths are called longitudinal modes, discrete

frequencies close together

Only the longitudinal modes under the gain curve, where the
gain is sufficient to overcome losses will lase
References

1. A largely non-mathematical treatment of laser technology:

Hitz C. B., Ewing J. and Hecht J.,
“Introduction to Laser Technology”
Wiley-IEEE Computer Society Press, 2001 3rd Edition

2. Advanced laser physics textbooks

Svelto O.,
“Principles of Lasers”
Springer, 2010 5th Edition

3. Siegman A.,
“Lasers”
University Science Books, 1986
Web Sites

1. “A Practical Guide to Lasers for Experimenters and

Hobbyists. Extremely comprehensive
www.laserfaq.org

2. “ The Laser Adventure”, an online laser tutorial

www.phys.ksu.edu/perg/vqm/laserweb/

3. A manufacturers’ web site with detailed technical

information
www.coherentinc.com/literature

4.http://www.aml.engineering.columbia.edu/ntm/level1/ch02/html/l1c02s03.html

5. https://www.cemarelectro.com/laser-safety/laser-types-and-operation/

6. https://perg.phys.ksu.edu/vqm/laserweb/Ch-6/F6s1t1p3.htm
Review Questions

1. What does the term LASER stand for?

2. What is a metastable state? Why is it important for laser

operation?

3. Describe three properties of laser light that distinguish it

from light from a flashlight

4. Describe the three basic elements of a laser. What is the

function of each?

5. “Stimulated emission and absorption are competing

processes. Discuss this statement.
6. Why is stimulated emission not possible without
spontaneous emission?