Optics and Lasers in Engineering 51 (2013) 180–184

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Optics and Lasers in Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/optlaseng

Laser cladding of Inconel 690 on Inconel 600 superalloy for

corrosion protection in nuclear applications
T. Baldridge a, G. Poling b, E. Foroozmehr c,1, R. Kovacevic c, T. Metz d, V. Kadekar d, M.C. Gupta a,n
a
University of Virginia, Electrical & Computer Engineering, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
b
AREVA NP Inc., Component Repair Technologies, Lynchburg, VA 24502, USA
c
Southern Methodist University, Mechanical Engineering, Dallas, TX 75275, USA
d
Laser Cladding Services, Houston, TX 77040, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In the nuclear industry there is need for repair of heat exchanger tubes made of high-temperature
Received 26 March 2012 corrosion-resistant Inconel metals. This work reports the results of applying a 3 mm thick cladding
Received in revised form layer by laser melting Inconel 690 powder on top of a 10 mm thick plate of Inconel 600 alloy substrate.
31 July 2012
Successful multilayer cladding of 3 mm thickness was achieved by scanning the laser beam over the
Accepted 22 August 2012
Available online 17 September 2012
substrate using a powder feeder to control the powder feed rate. Experimental parameters such as laser
power, scanning speed, beam overlap, powder feed rate, and preheating were investigated to reduce
Keywords: cracking upon cooling. SEM images show a smooth integral interface between the 600 and 690
Laser cladding materials, and EDS mapping reveals the dilution zone via the concentration gradient of chromium.
Inconel
Vickers tests show the 690 cladding surface to be up to 40% harder than the base 600 material. XRD and
Nuclear
EDS analysis confirm that the Inconel 690 composition remains unchanged throughout processing
Corrosion
Stress corrosion cracking when using argon as a shielding gas. The final laser melted cladding layer appears to be well-suited for
surface protection.
& 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction During repair, heating of the surrounding materials needs to be

In high temperature corrosive environments such as encoun-
tered in the nuclear industry, high nickel content superalloys such
as Inconel 600 are used due to their good stress corrosion
cracking (SCC) resistance. Despite good SCC resistance, industry
has sought improved primary water SCC (PWSCC) resistance by
using high chromium content nickel-based alloys [1]. When the
chromium content approaches 30 wt%, a protective chromium
oxide (chromia) layer forms which is sufficiently dense to
mitigate further corrosion in both air and steam environments.
Inconel alloy 690 contains  30 wt% Cr and thus has become an
important material for the nuclear industry. Table 1 lists both the
Inconel 600 and 690 material properties, from Special Metals
Corporation unless denoted otherwise. To repair corrosion on
aged steel and Inconel pipes, a reliable cost-effective method is
needed to deposit a high-Cr content layer over the damaged area.
One method to achieve this goal is by melting a 690 powder or
wire to form a continuous cladding on the substrate.
minimized in order to prevent microstructural changes in the heat-
affected zone (HAZ) which may lower mechanical strength and
chemical resistance [5,6]. This need is best accomplished via laser
heating, which can be applied selectively and efficiently [7,8]. Laser
processing enables direct fabrication without additional machining as
it can generate smooth surface finishes, while also achieving equal or
better material properties [9]. Costa and Vilar offer a good review of
the state of the art of laser powder deposition [10].
There has been much research on welding Inconel 690-type alloys
using Gas Tungsten Arc Welding [11,12] and laser welding [12–15],
but relatively little work on cladding layers. Lewis and Schlienger
have fabricated structures from Inconel 690 powder with laser-
assisted direct metal deposition, but the work did not discuss the
feasibility as a protective cladding [16]. Similarly, work has been
reported on laser cladding Inconel 690, but the substrate was 316 L
steel [17]. This report investigates the feasibility of laser cladding
Inconel 690 powder on an Inconel 600 substrate.

n
2. Experimental
Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 757 325 6850; fax: þ1 757 325 6988.
E-mail address: mgupta@virginia.edu (M.C. Gupta).
1
Isfahan University of Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Materials consisted of milled Inconel 600 plate and Inconel
Isfahan 84156-83111, Iran. 690 powder. The plate was supplied by AREVA NP and had

0143-8166/$ - see front matter & 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.optlaseng.2012.08.006
 T. Baldridge et al. / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 51 (2013) 180–184 181

Table 1

Inconel properties 600 690

Density (g/cm3) 8.47 8.19

Melting point (1C) 1354 1343
Thermal expansion (mm/m/1C @ 100 1C) 13.34 14.06
Thermal conductivity (W/m/1C @ 100 1C) 15.9 13.5
Specific heat J/kg/1C 444 450
Electrical resistivity (mO*m) 1.03 1.15
Young’s modulus (GPa) 214 207
Vickers hardness GPa [2,3] 1.6 1.8
Tensile strength MPa [3] 640 700
Elongation % [3] 48 51
Emissivity @ 1000 1C [4]  0.8 0.05
Fig. 1. Inconel 690 powder melts under laser irradiation, forming balls on the
Inconel 600 substrate due to insufficient wetting. The lower laser power of 150 W
and high particle reflectivity prevented melting of the substrate, which prevented
Table 2 good adhesion.

Laser setups Diode 1 Diode 2 Nd:YAG Yb Fiber

Stage axes 2 3 3 3
Wavelength (nm) 940 808 1064
Max power (W) 170 800 420
Spot size (mm) 2 1  12 0.7
Feedrate (g/min) n/a 21–39 2.7–4.0
Scan speed (mm/s) 1–2 2–6 8–22
dimensions of 280  108  10 mm. The 690 powder was pur-
chased from Ecka Granules (U.K.), type 674, with size distribution
63–150 mm. The supplied powder chemical analysis showed the
following composition by weight:Ni 63.15%, Cr 27.42%, Fe 8.45%,
Si 0.44%, Cu 0.41%, Mn 0.08%, and C 0.05%.
Four unique laser setups were investigated to obtain basic
understanding and optimum processing results, as detailed in
Table 2. All lasers operated in continuous wave (CW) mode and all
but Diode 2 were delivered via fiber. A translation stage allowed
for scanning the laser beam in two or three dimensions. Argon
was used as a shielding gas.
For Diode 1 laser setup, powder was manually spread by hand in a
thin layer of  250 mm. A chamber contained the sample which was
flushed with argon before and during processing. A window allowed
the laser beam to irradiate the sample. The laser model was a Jenoptik
JOLD-250-CPXF-2P2. A variable-output 600 amp induction heater
was also used for preheating the sample substrate up to  800 1C.
Diode 2 laser setup was a 2 kW Nuvonyx direct diode unit with
only 800 W of output due to diode degradation. Argon was fed on-
axis and powder was fed from  501 off-axis from the laser beam.
The Nd:YAG laser setup used a 4-tube symmetrical powder
feeder with a coaxially mounted Lumonics fiber-coupled Nd:YAG
laser. Argon flow shielded the laser lens and assisted in delivering
powder through the tubes. An electric hotplate was also available
to preheat the substrate up to 300 1C.
The Ytterbium Yb Fiber laser used a coaxially-fed powder
feeder and shielding gas. The laser was made by IPG Photonics
and samples were preheated between 100 and 150 1C.
Microstructures were observed by Scanning Electron Micro-
scopy (SEM) (Supra 40, Carl Zeiss, Germany) with simultaneous
elemental analysis by Energy Dispersive x-ray Spectroscopy (EDS)
(INCA x-sight, Oxford Instruments, England). X-Ray Diffraction
(XRD) (XDS 2000, Scintag, CA, USA) was used for analyzing phases.
Micro-hardness (HV0.5) was measured using Vickers hardness
tester (Mod. 1600–6100, Buehler, USA) with a 0.5 kgf load and
15 s dwell time.
3. Results
The first experiments were performed using the Diode 1 setup.
Due to the high reflectivity of the Inconel 690 powder layer, this
diode laser was unable to penetrate the powder to heat the
substrate sufficiently to create a strong bond at the interface. The
1070
3000 melted powder would not normally wet the unheated substrate.
5 Instead, the melt pool typically formed balls to minimize surface
25–35 tension, as shown in Fig. 1 on a sample processed at 150 W.
12–16 Preheating temperature was increased to compensate for the lack
of beam penetration; multiple layers achieved good density when
used with the induction heat, but the cladding layer was never
homogenous. Oxidation was visible on both the melted 690
surface and the 600 substrate. A greenish-color chromia (Cr2O3)
layer forms on the surface of the heated 690.
The higher-power Diode 2 bar laser was able to create a fully
melted smooth cladding using a spot size of 12  1 mm; however,
the array of diodes were not fully functional and thus the
intensity profile was inconsistent along the 12 mm beam width.
Combined with the low granularity of the powder feeder, the
cladding layer thickness could not be controlled well enough to
produce a quality result. Moreover, significant surface cracking
was visible when viewing the sample under the optical micro-
scope (OM). No further optimization or characterization was
performed on these samples.
Using a small spot size of 700 mm, the high-intensity Nd:YAG
laser setup allowed creating multilayer samples with precision
and consistency. Individual layers of 150–200 mm thickness could
be built up indefinitely using the 3-axis CNC stage, with each
layer achieving an integral bond with the substrate. Operating the
laser near full power (420 W) allowed higher scan speeds;
however, the layer height variation also increased, thus laser
power was reduced to improve uniformity. Higher preheating
temperatures compensated for reduced laser powers. After
remelting the top surface by laser scanning after powder sintering
(i.e., annealed), the cladding layer quality appeared excellent to
the naked eye. Upon observation under the OM and SEM, how-
ever, there was cracking on the surface and within the 690
cladding layers.
To reduce cracking in the samples, the process parameters
were varied within the following window: a) scanning speed from
8 to 22 mm/s, b) laser power from 150 to 420 W, c) powder feed
rate from 2.7 to 4.0 g/minute, d) beam overlap from 43 to
57%, and e) preheating from 25 to 300 1C. Ultimately, the best
sample was produced using process parameters: a) 10 mm/s, b)
150 W, c) 3.0 g/min, d) 50%, and e) 300 1C, with a  180 mm
thickness per layer.
Even on the best sample using the Nd:YAG laser, some cracks
remained in the cladding layer. One example can be seen in the
OM image on the smoothed surface of Fig. 2a, with the crack
running near the joint of the horizontal beam paths (denoted with
an arrow). Fig. 2b shows a picture of the cladding surface before
and after rescanning with the laser; process parameters were:
182 T. Baldridge et al. / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 51 (2013) 180–184
Fig. 2. (a) Optical images of 690 cladding top surface has a high roughness due to
unmelted powder attached to surface (left) until rescanned by laser (right). Arrows
point to surface micro-cracks, and (b) visible images of top surface, with the right-
side laser annealed. Process parameters were 18 mm/s, 400 W, 3.0 g/min, and 50%
overlap.
Fig. 3. Inconel 690 cladding created from 10 layers using the Nd:YAG laser
operated at 200 W, with overall cladding thickness 43 mm. The 1’’ square sample
was cut into two and the cut surface was lightly polished.
a) 18 mm/s, b) 400 W, c) 3.0 g/min, d) 50% overlap, and e) 25 1C.
The cladding surface is rough and has slight variation in thickness
until remelted with the laser to improve smoothness. A cross-
sectional view of one such sample is shown in Fig. 3, with a 3 mm
Inconel 690 cladding layer deposited on a 10 mm Inconel 600
substrate. Continued optimization of parameters may further
improve results.
The SEM was used to characterize the densification and
chemistry of the Nd:YAG cladding bonding. Cracking was not
noticed at the interface when analyzing the cross-section of
samples, however a low occurrence of voids existed. Using the
SEM it was possible to distinguish the interface location, as in
Fig. 4. An EDS mapping showed the distribution of elements
between the top Inconel 690 cladding layer and the 600 substrate.
Fig. 4 distinctly shows the higher Cr concentration in the 690
cladding, but it also reveals the  100 mm depth of the dilution
zone where Cr diffused into the substrate. The applied laser beam
created a melt pool of 690 and 600, increasing the concentration
of Cr in that region. EDS mapping also shows a higher concentra-
tion of carbon at the outer surface.
In the final laser setup, good results were achieved using a
Yb Fiber laser operated at 2–3 kW of power. The high power
allowed using a large 5 mm beam diameter and could create a
3 mm thick cladding using only 2 layers. The powder feed rate
was 25–35 g/min and the scan speed 14 mm/s. The preheating
temperatures of 100–150 1C were chosen based on previous
experience. The sample surface looks smoother than the compar-
able (non-annealed) Nd:YAG results, and the SEM did not indicate
surface cracking. A cross-section of the sample evidenced only a
few internal defects such as pores and thin elongated voids that
appeared similar to cracks running orthogonal to the cladding
surface. Fig. 5 shows a cross-section of the cladded substrate, with
an EDS linescan of the interface resolving minimal Cr dilution; the
texture visible in the polished region is from the reflected image,
not the Inconel metal.
Vickers micro-hardness test results show the base Inconel 600
hardness to be 1.4 GPa, with the hardness increasing towards the
top of the 690 cladding to nearly 2.5 GPa at the surface. The
hardness value of the Inconel 600 agrees well with that found in
literature [18]; however, the laser-processed Inconel 690 has
significantly higher hardness, nearer to that of work-hardened
690 at 10% cold reduction. The 690 average cladding hardness
was 2.20 GPa using the Nd:YAG laser and 2.04 GPa using the Yb
Fiber laser. This increased hardness is typical of laser processing
of most metals and has been well-documented [19–21]. The
higher hardness when using the Nd:YAG laser instead of the Yb
Fig. 4. SEM image of 690 cladding/ 600 substrate interface with EDS mapping
showing  100 mm thick Cr dilution into substrate, indicating remelt zone.
Fig. 5. Left: Inconel 690 cladding created from 2 layers using a high-power Yb fiber
laser; the green chromia layer is visible on the unpolished top surface of the
visible image. The boxed region was analyzed in the SEM, on right. The SEM/EDS
linescan shows higher chromium content (rightmost linescan) from the 690
cladding with thin dilution region from the 600 substrate (online only: green:
Ni, red: Fe).
 T. Baldridge et al. / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 51 (2013) 180–184
Fig. 6. XRD results from two Inconel 690 cladding surfaces. The darker dotted line
exhibits only the three major 690 diffraction peaks, as the smaller sample was
processed at lower power levels. The lighter dashed line was from a large sample
processed at high power, showing additional chromia peaks. The chromia formed
on the sample surface as the larger size made complete shielding of the hot region
difficult.
Fig. 7. Cladding process using an IPG Photonics Yb fiber laser.
Fiber laser likely resulted from the shorter processing time at high
temperatures, minimizing grain growth. Micro-hardness on the
unpolished surface may exceed 3.4 GPa in some locations due to
carbides and oxides, however uncertainty is high owing to the
surface roughness when unpolished.
XRD results of the sample surfaces of both the Nd:YAG and Yb
Fiber laser processes are compared in Fig. 6. The Nd:YAG sample
exhibits a pure Inconel 690 response with negligible oxidation. On
the other hand, some chromia formed using the high-power Yb
Fiber laser process due to larger sample size and longer duration
at higher temperatures, which in combination prevented the
entire sample from being shielded with argon during the full
treatment process. The oxidation present with the Yb Fiber
sample could inhibit good multilayer bonding, yet the chromia
could also improve initial SCC resistance. Fig.7 shows an example
of the cladding processing using a Yb fiber laser on a curved metal
surface.
4. Discussion
The process parameters are important for achieving quality results
and require finding the optimum balance of variables such as:
substrate preheating; laser beam wavelength, power and spot size;
scanning speed and beam overlap; and powder size and feed rate.
183
Preheating reduces the need for a high power laser, yet the laser heats
locally while preheating uniformly raises the temperature of the
entire sample. Consequently, the higher the preheating temperature
the less advantage a laser provides over traditional heating methods,
including simplified build-up of layers and reduced grain size.
Preheating also impacts ductility dip cracking during the cooling
phase of the cladded layer. The laser parameters can be varied to
achieve faster throughput, generally at the tradeoff of needing higher
beam power or resulting in poorer surface quality (e.g., roughness and
porosity).
In the case where the powder is pre-spread over the substrate,
the reflectivity of the powder must be considered. The 690
powder used in this work had a median size of 90 mm. This
size was chosen for optimal powder feeding, but for pre-spread
powders a powder size nearer to the impinging wavelength
would greatly reduce the reflectivity, thus greatly improving the
heat input. Likewise, for relatively high thermal conductivity
materials like Inconel, not only must the intensity be high enough
to melt the powder particles, but the power must also sufficiently
heat the substrate to allow the molten powder to bond to the
substrate. As with Diode 1 laser setup, beam intensity was too
low to penetrate the powder to melt the substrate surface and
instead loose melted balls of 690 powder were formed. As shown
with the Nd:YAG and Yb Fiber lasers, using a powder feeder
permits heating the substrate to form a remelted zone with the
powder, which ensures good bonding to the substrate and at
subsequent layer interfaces. This remelted ‘dilution’ region also
reduces strain when bonding materials with different thermal
expansion properties, although for Inconel 690 on 600 the strain
would be minimal at o0.1% due to similar coefficients of thermal
expansion. A large dilution region is not desired for nuclear
applications, however, as the 690 cladding must maintain the
higher Cr content to be effective in preventing primary water SCC.
Beyond process parameters, the type of laser used also impacts
the intensity needed to induce melting of the Inconel. Alloy 690
absorbs 1 mm wavelength laser beams better than 10 mm [17].
Thus, a Nd:YAG laser or Yb fiber is significantly more efficient for
processing than a CO2 laser. Moreover, the quality of the cladding
layer is improved when using the shorter wavelength laser due to
smaller grain size and more homogenous distribution of chro-
mium [17]. Similarly, compared under equal average power, using
a pulsed laser waveform instead of continuous wave (CW) can
also reduce porosity of laser cladding, especially with viscous
melt pools like 690 [22]. Along with beam intensity, the powder
feed rate and powder size impact the cladding quality. Too high of
a feed rate prevents even melting, whereas too low of a feed rate
increases porosity. Powder size needs to be small enough not to
disrupt the molten metal pool as the particles impact the surface
[23], but not so small as to make powder feeding difficult [24].
Even the shielding gas used impacts the cladding quality. Kuo
report that using N2 instead of Ar or He yielded the lowest
porosity ratio when laser welding Inconel 690 [14]. The shielding
gas flow rate also needs to be high enough to protect the entire
cladding area while it is heated, else oxidation may occur on the
cladding surface, as shown Fig. 5.
A challenge with processing Inconel 690 lies in avoiding
cracking of the cladding layer during cooling. As with welding
joints, the laser cladded layer is constrained by a relatively thick
substrate. The strain induced during cooling combined with the
reduced high-temperature strength and fracture resistance per-
mits the formation of cracking both on the surface and within the
layer, termed ductility-dip cracking (DDC). DDC typically occurs
in austenitic alloys between 0.5 and 0.8 of Tm (material melting
point) [25], which for Inconel 690 has been measured to be
extremely susceptible at 950–1000 1C [11,26]. Preheating tem-
perature, laser power & intensity, and material geometry &
184 T. Baldridge et al. / Optics and Lasers in Engineering 51 (2013) 180–184
thermal conductivity impact the cooling rate of the cladded layer.
The cooling rate affects the strain, time for carbide precipitation,
and grain boundary migration, all of which influence DDC [27].
Furthermore, DDC susceptibility is composition dependent, and
there is variance even between different heats of Inconel 690 [28].
The 690 powder used here had the maximum allowable carbon
impurity (0.05%) which may have increased the likelihood of DDC.
Inconel 690 DDC resistance may be improved by adding small
quantities of additives such as niobium, molybdenum, or lantha-
num. The DDC problem in Inconel Filler Metal 52M was addressed
by increasing the Nb and Mo concentration in formula 52MSS.
Adding 5.0–6.5 wt% of NbþMo with 42 wt% Nb best reduces
DDC. The mechanisms of improvement result from an even
distribution of small precipitates of the additives and increased
grain boundary tortuosity, which reduce the mobility of grain
boundaries and thus resist the grain boundary sliding exhibited
during DDC [11]. NbC precipitates tend to reduce DDC, whereas
Cr23C6 precipitates do the opposite [29]. Adding 0.01–0.03 wt% of
lanthanum also improves DDC resistance by desegregating impu-
rities such as P and S from grain boundaries through scavenging
[15]. Thus, the addition of Nb, Mo and La to alloy 690 powder
before laser melting may significantly enhance the crack resis-
tance of the cladding. The cracks observed in this work had low
tortuosity, further supporting the need for a 690 powder with
improved composition.
5. Conclusion
This work demonstrates successful laser cladding of Inconel
690 on Inconel 600 substrate to create thick multilayer structures
while maintaining low porosity and negligible surface contam-
ination. SEM images show a solid bond between the interface of
the two Inconel materials with few voids and no impurities
between layers. EDS mapping across the interface resolved a thin
chromium dilution depth. EDS and XRD chemical analysis con-
firmed that the composition remains pure with only slight Cr2O3
surface contamination on large pieces, which may be preferred for
improving initial corrosion resistance. The high-power Yb Fiber
laser appears to attain the best cladding quality with minimal
porosity and surface defects. Future work includes optimizing the
alloy 690 powder chemistry. The optimal composition should be
investigated to determine how small additives such as niobium,
molybdenum or lanthanum can improve resistance to cracking
from processing and corrosion.
Acknowledgment
This work was supported by AREVA NP Inc, Component Repair
Technologies division and the NSF I/UCRC program through grant
numbers IIP-0823780 (UVA) and IIP-1034652 (SMU).
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