Transverse Wave

Motion (2)
Chapter 6
Pain, H. J., Rankin., P., “Introduction to Vibrations
and Waves”, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., 2015

Gatut Yudoyono
Dept. of Physics, ITS

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Waves are rarely monochromatic, that is, limited to a single
frequency, but are usually made of a mixture of frequencies.
 The superposition of two waves of equal amplitudes and
phase velocities but with slightly different frequencies.
 The two waves are allowed different phase velocities and
finally multiple waves over a narrow frequency range are
superposed to form a pulse. This leads to the concepts of
group velocity, beats, and dispersion.
 The Bandwidth Theorem is derived and its connection to
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle is explored.

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6.1 Wave Groups, Group Velocity and Dispersion
Superposition of Two Waves of Almost Equal Frequencies

Their separate displacements are given by

Superposition of amplitude and phase gives

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Wave Groups, Group Velocity and Dispersion

Suppose now that the two frequency components of the last

section have different phase velocities so that ω1/k1 ≠
ω2/k2. The velocity of the maximum amplitude of the
group, that is, the group velocity

A medium in which the phase velocity is frequency dependent

(ω/k not constant) is known as a dispersive medium

A dispersion relation expresses the variation of ω as a function

of k.

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If a group contains a number of components of frequencies
which are nearly equal the original expression for the
group velocity is written

v is the phase velocity,

Usually dv/dλ is positive, so that vg < v. This is called

normal dispersion, but anomalous dispersion can arise
when dv/dλ is negative, so that vg > v.

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 Curves illustrating dispersion relations: (a) a straight line
representing a non-dispersive medium, v = vg; (b) a normal
dispersion relation where the gradient v = ω/k > vg = dω/dk; (c)
an anomalous dispersion relation where v < vg.
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The electric vector of an electromagnetic wave propagates in a
dielectric with a velocity v = (με)−1/2 where μ is the
permeability and ε is the permittivity. In free space the
velocity is that of light, c = (μ0ε0)−1/2. The refractive index

n = c/v = (με/μ0ε0 )−1/2 = (μrεr))−1/2 , μr = μ/μ0 and εr = ε/ε0.

For many substances μr is constant and ∼1, but εr is frequency

dependent, so that v depends on λ.

The group velocity

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Anomalous dispersion showing the behaviour of the refractive index
n = √εr versus ω and λ, where ω0 is a resonant frequency of the
atoms of the medium.

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6.2 Wave Group of Many Components.
The Bandwidth Theorem

A group of many frequency components, the amplitude which

results from the superposition of the frequency components

The average frequency in

the group or band is

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Now n(δω) = Δω, the bandwidth,
when n is large,

or where A = na and α = Δω · t/2 is half the phase

difference between the first and last
components at time t.

At t = 0, sin α/α → 1 and all the components superpose with zero

phase difference to give the maximum amplitude R(t) = A = na.
After some time interval Δt when

the phases between the frequency components are such that the
resulting amplitude R(t) is zero.

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 A rectangular wave band of
width Δω having n frequency
components of amplitude a
with a common frequency
difference δω.

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The time Δt which is a measure of the width of the central pulse
of Figure b is therefore given by

or Δν Δt = 1 where Δω = 2πΔν.

The true width of the base of the central pulse is 2Δt but the intervalΔt
is taken as an arbitrarymeasure of time, centred about t = 0, during
which the amplitude R(t) remains significantly large (>A/2). With
this arbitrary definition the exact expression
Δν Δt = 1
becomes the approximation
Δν Δt ≈ 1 or (ΔωΔt ≈ 2π)
and this approximation is known as the Bandwidth Theorem.

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The Bandwidth Theorem states that the components of a band of
width Δω in the frequency range will superpose to produce a
significant amplitude R(t) only for a time Δt before the band decays
from random phase differences. The greater the range Δω the
shorter the period Δt.

Alternatively, the theorem states that a single pulse of time durationΔt

is the result of the superposition of frequency components over
the range Δω; the shorter the period Δt of the pulse the wider the
range Δω of the frequencies required to represent it.

When Δω is zero we have a single frequency, the monochromatic wave

which is therefore required (in theory) to have an infinitely long
time span.

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Replacing ω by k and t by x would define the length of the wave group
as Δx in terms of the range of component wavelengths Δ(1/λ). The
Bandwidth Theorem then becomes

A monochromatic wave with Δk = 0 requires Δx → ∞; that is, an

infinitely long wavetrain.

In modern physics the Bandwidth Theorem becomes Heisenberg’s

Uncertainty Principle.

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6.3 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle
Compton (1922–23) fired X-rays (a known frequency) at thin foils of
different materials and found that the scattered radiation was
independent of the foil material and that his results were
consistent only if momentum and energy were conserved in an
elastic collision between two ‘particles’, an electron and an X-ray of
energy hν, rest mass m0 and a momentum p = E/c = hν/c = h/λ
where c = νλ and h is Planck’s constant.

De Broglie (1924) proposed that if the dual wave particle nature of

electromagnetic fields (X-rays) required a particle momentum of p
= h/λ it was possible that a wavelength λ of a ‘matter’ field could
be associated with any particle p = mv to give the relation p = h/λ.
He showed that the velocity v in mv was the group velocity of a
pulse (not a single frequency) so

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But the Bandwidth Theorem shows that a group in the wave number
range Δk superposed in space over a distance Δx obeys the relation

A wave group representing a particle showing dispersion after time t.

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6.4 TransverseWaves in Periodic Structures (1)
Waves in a Crystal

The normal transverse vibrations of n equal masses of separation a along

a light string of length (n+1)a under a tension T with both ends fixed.
The equation of motion of the rth particle was found to be

and for n masses the frequencies of the normal modes of vibration were
given by

where j = 1, 2, 3, . . . , n. When the separation a becomes infinitesimally

small (= δx, say) the term in the equation of motion

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so that the equation of motion becomes

the wave equation, where ρ = m/δx, the linear density and

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We are now going to consider the propagation of transverse waves
along a linear array of atoms, mass m, in a crystal lattice where the
tension T now represents the elastic force between the atoms (so
that T/a is the stiffness) and a, the separation between the atoms,
is about 1 Å or 10−10 m.

Displacement of the rth particle due to the transverse waves as

The equation of motion then becomes

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 we plot |sin ka/2| against k

Sufficient to restrict the values of k to the region

which is known as the first Brillouin zone.

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For long wavelengths or low values of the wave number k, sin ka/2 → ka/2
so that

and the velocity of the wave is given by

In general the phase velocity is given by

a dispersion relation which is shown in Figure.

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6.5 Linear Array of Two Kinds of Atoms in an Ionic Crystal

A one-dimensional line which contains two kinds of atoms with separa-

tion a as before, those atoms of mass M occupying the odd
numbered positions, 2r − 1, 2r + 1, etc. and those of mass m
occupying the even numbered positions, 2r, 2r + 2, etc.
The equations of motion for each type are

and

with solutions

where Am and AM are the amplitudes of the respective masses.

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The equations of motion thus become

and
equations which are consistent when

Plotting the dispersion relation ω vs. k

for the positive sign and m>M gives
the upper curve of Figure, The
negative sign in equation gives the
lower curve of Figure.
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The upper curve is called the ‘optical’
branch and the lower curve is known
as the ‘acoustical’ branch.

In the optical branch for long  and small k, Am/AM = −M/m, and the atoms
vibrate against each other, so that the centre of mass of the unit cell in the
crystal remains fixed. This motion can be generated by the action of an EM
wave when alternate atoms are ions of opposite charge;
In the acoustic branch, long  and small k give Am = AM, and the atoms and
their centre of mass move together (as in longitudinal sound waves).

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Absorption of Infrared Radiation by Ionic Crystals

Radiation of frequency 3.1012 Hz. gives an infrared  of 100 μm and k = 2π/λ

≈ 6.104 m−1. We found the cut-off frequency in the crystal lattice to give
km ≈ 1010 m−1, so that the k value of infrared radiation is a negligible
quantity relative to km and may be taken as zero.
When the ions of opposite charge ±e move under the influence of the electric
field vector E = E0 eiωt of EM radiation, with k = 0 the appropriate frequ-
ency of their vibration becomes the low k limit of the optical branch.

Worked Example
A sodium chloride crystal has a sodium ion Na of mass 23 × 1.66 × 10−27 kg
and a chloride ion of 35×1.66×10−27 kg. The value of T/a = 15N·m−1. At what
frequency will it absorb electromagnetic radiation?
gives a value of ν which when converted to λ = c/ν gives λ =
66×10−6 m. Experimentally sodium chloride is found to absorb
strongly at λ = 61 × 10−6 m.
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6.6 TransverseWaves in Periodic Structures (2)
The Diffusion Equation, Energy Loss from Wave Systems

The voltage wave equation

The coefficient 1/c2, where c is the wave velocity,

depends only on L0 and C0, the energy storing
parameters.

This ideal situation changes when loss mechanisms are involved. These
arise from particle collisions in the medium causing loss of mass
(diffusion), momentum (friction or viscosity) and energy (thermal
conductivity).

The diffusion equation:

d = the diffusivity

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The Wave Equation with Diffusion Effects
We can rarely find waves which propagate free from the energy-loss
mechanisms – the exception being electromagnetic waves in regions
of free space.

Try to solve the equation combining wave and diffusion effects

The solution

φm is the maximum amplitude

if we put γ = k − iα we obtain γ2 = k2 − 2ikα − α2.

There are two possibilities: k >> α or α << k.
k >> α  a sine or cosine solution of maximum amplitude φm which
decays exponentially with distance.
k << α  the wave term is quickly extinguished by a rapidly decaying
exponential term.
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Problems

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 Bandwith = 0,08 Bandwith = 0,64

Bandwith = 0,8 Bandwith = 1,6

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