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RECEPTORS
Digviaya
Lecturer
School of Medical & Allied Sciences
GD Goenka University
1. Introduction
2. History
3. Drug-Receptor Interactions
4. Classification
5. Transducer mechanisms
6. Regulation of receptors
7. Function of receptors
8. Recent advances
9. Summary
10. References
Introduction
•The term drug receptor or drug target denotes the cellular macromolecule or macromolecular
complex with which the drug interacts to elicit a cellular response, i.e., a change in cell
function.
• These are the sensing elements in the system of chemical communications that coordinates the
function of all the different cells in the body.
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011.
HISTOR
Y
1. The birth of the receptor concept was the outcome of circumstances in the
lives of its two founding fathers, the physiologist John Newport Langley
(1852–1925) and the immunologist and bacteriologist Paul Ehrlich
(1854– 1915).
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Theories Proposed
Receptor occupancy theory:
Clark (1937) propounded a theory of drug action based on occupation of receptors by specific
drugs.
The interaction between the two molecular species, viz. drug (D ) and receptor (R) to be
governed by the law of mass action, and the effect (E) to be a direct function of the drug-
receptor complex (DR) formed.
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Contd….
Two – state receptor theory:
It was first described by Black and Leff in 1983 as an alternative model of receptor activation.
It proposes that ligand binding results in a change in receptor state from an inactive to an
active state based on the receptor's conformation.
A receptor in its active state will ultimately elicit its biological response.
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Contd
….
It is model proposed for explaining the action of
agonists, antagonists, partial agonists and inverse
agonists.
Affinity: The ability of the drug to bind with the receptor and form D-R complex.
Intrinsic activity (IA) or efficacy: The capacity of the drug to induce a functional
change in the
receptor after binding.
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Contd….
Based on Affinity and Intrinsic Activity, the drug can be labelled as follows:
Agonist: An agent which activates a receptor to produce an effect similar to that of the
physiological signal molecule. Agonists have both affinity and maximal intrinsic activity
(IA
= 1). e.g. adrenaline, acetylcholine, histamine, morphine.
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Contd….
Partial agonist: An agent which activates a receptor to produce submaximal effect but
antagonizes the action of a full agonist. Partial agonists have affinity and submaximal
intrinsic activity (IA between 0 and 1). e.g. dichloroisoproterenol (on β adrenergic
receptor), pentazocine (on μ opioid receptor).
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Contd….
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011.
Classification
o Only a handful of transducer pathways are shared by large number of receptors, the cell
is able to generate an integrated response reflecting the sum total of diverse signal input.
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016.
Contd….
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Ligand-gated ion
channels
Also known as Ionotropic receptors.
These are the receptors on which fast neurotransmitters act.
These mediate fast synaptic transmission, on a millisecond time scale, in the nervous system
and at the somatic neuromuscular junction.
Typical example of this is Nicotinic Acetylcholine receptor at NM junction.
Other examples include GABAA , 5HT3 receptors, Glycine receptors, IP3 receptors, Ionotropic
Glutamate receptors, Purinergic PAX, etc.
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Contd….
These are integral membrane proteins that contain a pore which allows the regulated flow
of selected ions across the plasma membrane.
Ion flux is passive and driven by the electrochemical gradient for the permeant ions.
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Contd….
Mechanism of Action:
The five helices that form the pore are sharply
kinked inwards halfway through the membrane,
forming a constriction.
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Contd….
Clinical Significance:
Nicotinic Ach receptors and Glutamate receptors are responsible for the majority of
synaptic transmission by neurons in CNS as well as in the periphery. So, they help in
generation and propagation in nerve impulses.
IP3 sensitive Ca2+ channels are responsible for release of Ca2+ from ER and this can be
blocked by drugs in treatment of Malignant Hyperthermia.
The Sulfonylurea Receptor ‘SUR 1’ regulates the ATP-dependent K+ channels are the
prime target of oral hypoglycemic drugs in treatment of Type II DM.
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011.
G-protein coupled receptors
(GPCRs):
These are also known as Metabotropic or 7- Transmembrane (7TM) receptors.
Humans express over 800 GPCRs that make up the third largest family of genes in
humans.
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011.
Contd….
They are membrane receptors that are coupled to intracellular effector systems primarily via
a G protein.
G proteins are signal transducers that convey the information that agonist is bound to the
receptor from the receptor to one or more effector proteins.
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011.
Classification of
GPCRs
On the basis of sequence homology, GPCRs are classified into six classes. These classes
and their prototype members were as follows:
Class A (rhodopsin-like),
Class B (secretin receptor family),
Class C (metabotropic glutamate),
Class D (fungal mating pheromone receptors),
Class E (cyclic AMP receptors) and
Class F (frizzled/smoothened).
Of these, classes D and E are not found in vertebrates
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Contd….
An alternative classification scheme "GRAFS" divides GPCRs into five classes:
o Glutamate family (class C): eg. metabotropic glutamate receptors, a calcium-sensing
receptor and GABAB receptors.
o Rhodopsin family (class A): eg. neurotransmitters, peptides and hormones,
olfactory receptors, visual pigments, taste type 2 receptors.
o Adhesion family: These are phylogenetically realted to class B receptors, from
which they
differ by possessing large extracellular N-terminal.
o Frizzled family: Consists of 10 Frizzled proteins (FZD(1-10)) and Smoothened
(SMO).
o Secretin family: These are encoded by 15 genes in humans. The ligands for receptors in
this family are: glucagon, glucagon-like peptides (GLP-1, GLP-2), GIP, secretin, VIP,
pituitary adenylate cyclase-activating polypeptide (PACAP) and GHRH.
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER;
2016
Contd….
In the basal state of the receptor-heterotrimer complex, the α subunit contains bound GDP
and the α-GDP:βγ complex is bound to the unliganded receptor.
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011.
Contd….
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Contd….
The following couplers have been associated with different G
receptors: Receptor Coupler
Muscuranic M2 Gi, Go
Muscuranic M1, M3 Gq
Dopamine D2 Gi, Go
β-adrenergic Gs
α1- adrenergic Gq
α2- adrenergic Gi, Go
In addition, Gs is the coupler for histamine H2, serotonin 5HT4-7 and many
more.
Gi is utilized by opioid, cannabinoid and some other receptors.
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Mechanism of
Action
When an agonist binds to a GPCR, there is a conformational change in the receptor.
This causes the α subunit to exchange its bound GDP for GTP.
Binding of GTP activates the α subunit and causes it to release both the βγ dimer and the
receptor.
Both the GTP bound α subunit and the βγ heterodimer become active signaling
molecules.
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW
HILL MEDICAL; 2011.
Contd….
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011.
Contd….
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011
Effector
pathways
The main targets for G proteins, through which GPCR control different aspects of cell
function are:
o Adenylyl cyclase, the enzyme responsible for cAMP formation.
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Contd
….
Adenylyl cyclase/cAMP
pathway:
intracellular
accumulation of Activates Protein
Activation of AC Kinase (PKA)
second messenger
cAMP
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER;
2016
Contd….
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER;
2016
Contd
….
Phospholipase C : IP3-DAG pathway:
Activation of
phospholipase Cβ
Hydrolyses the membrane
PIP2 to generate IP3 and
DAG
IP3 diffuses to cytosol and mobilises
calcium from ER whereas, DAG
stays in the membrane and recruits
and activates PKc.
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER;
2016
Contd….
• Another major function of G protein-coupled receptors is to control ion channel
function directly.
• Examples:
• In Cardiac muscles, mAChRs enhance K+ permeability.
• In neurons, inhibitory drugs such as opioid analgesics reduce excitability by opening
certain K+ channels or by inhibiting voltage-activated Ca2+ channels and thus reducing
neurotransmitter release.
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Major functional pathways of GPCR transduction
Adenylyl cyclase: cAMP Phospholipase IP3-DAG Channel regulation
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Contd….
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Contd….
Abnormal G protein signalling can occur due to:
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011
Kinase-linked and related
receptors
• Diverse group of physiological membrane receptors.
• They have extracellular ligand binding domains and an intrinsic enzymatic activity on
the cytoplasmic surface of the cell.
• Most are activated by a wide variety of protein mediators, including growth factors and
cytokines, hormones such as insulin and leptin.
• Here, the effects are exerted mainly at the level of gene transcription.
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Contd….
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Contd….
Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs):
These molecules consist of single polypeptide chains.
Have large, cysteine-rich extracellular domains.
Have short transmembrane domains.
The intracellular region containing one (or in some cases two) protein
tyrosine kinase domains.
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW
HILL MEDICAL; 2011
Mechanism of
action
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Contd….
Cytokine receptors ( JAK-STAT Receptor):
• These receptors signal to the nucleus by a more direct manner than the receptor tyrosine
kinases.
• These receptors have no intrinsic enzymatic activity.
• The intracellular domain binds a separate, intracellular tryosine kinase termed a Janus kinase
(JAK).
• JAKs phosphorylate other proteins termed signal transducers and activators of
transcription
(STATs).
• Examples include receptors for cytokines such as γ-interferon, hormones like
growth hormone and prolactin.
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011
Mechanism of
action
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER;
2016
Contd….
Receptor serine/threonine kinases:
This smaller class is similar in structure to RTKs.
However, they phosphorylate serine and/or threonine residues rather than tyrosine.
The activated receptor on ligand binding, phosphorylates a gene regulatory protein termed
a
Smad.
The main example is the receptor for transforming growth factor (TGF-β).
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011
Contd….
Other receptors include:
Toll-Like Receptors:
• Signaling related to the innate immune system.
• Highly expressed in hematopoeitic cells.
• Ligands comprise of a multitude of pathogen products including lipids,
peptidoglycans, lipopeptides, and viruses.
• Activation of these receptors produces an inflammatory response to the
pathogenic microorganisms.
Tumor Necrosis Factor α (TNF-α): Eg: Signaling to the NF-κB transcription factors.
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW
HILL MEDICAL; 2011
Contd….
Clinical Significance:
These are key regulators of critical cellular processes, such as proliferation and
differentiation, cell survival and metabolism, cell migration and cell cycle control.
RTKs are seen as drug targets in many types of cancer and other disease states like
inflammation, neurodegeneration, atherosclerosis.
Many diseases result from genetic changes or abnormalities that either alter the activity
and/or regulation of RTKs.
Few classic examples of Drugs that act at receptors in this diverse family:
1. Insulin for the treatment of diabetes mellitus.
2. Imatinib used to treat chronic myelogenous leukemia and several solid tumors
with dysregulated tyrosine kinases.
3. Humanized monoclonal antibodies to TNF-α itself, such as infiximab and
adalimumab, are important for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis and Crohn’s disease.
GOODMAN, GILMAN, L.BRUTON: THE PHARMACOLOGICAL BASIS OF THERAPEUTICS; 12TH EDITION, NEW YORK: MCGRAW HILL
MEDICAL; 2011
Receptors regulating gene
expression
Also called as Nuclear Receptors (NR).
NRs can directly interact with DNA, so called ligand activated transcription factors.
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER;
2016
Contd….
Molecular Structure:
The N-terminal domain displays the most
heterogeneity. It harbours the AF1
(activation function 1) site.
The core domain of the receptor is highly
conserved and consists of the structure responsible
for DNA recognition and binding.
It is the highly flexible hinge region in the
molecule that allows it to dimerise with other
NRs.
The C-terminal domain contains the ligand-
binding
module and is specific to each class of receptor. Diagram of a nuclear receptor
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Classification
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Mechanism of
Action
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Cont
d
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER;
2016
Contd…
.Clinical Significance:
1. NRs are very important drug targets, being responsible for the biological effects of
approximately 10–15% of all prescription drugs.
2. NRs also regulate expression of many drug metabolising enzymes and transporters.
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
H.P RANG, J.M. RITTER, R.J. FLOWER, G.HENDERSON: RANG & DALE’S PHARMACOLOGY; 8TH EDITION. CHINA: ELSEVIER; 2016
Regulation of
Receptors
Receptors exist in a dynamic state, i.e. their density and efficacy to elicit a response is subject
to regulation by the level of on-going activity, feedback from their own signal output and
other pathophysiological influences.
The mechanisms involved may be unmasking of receptors or their proliferation (up
regulation)
or accentuation of signal amplification by the transducer.
Eg. – Estrogens increase the density of oxytocin receptors on the myometrium, and the
sensitivity of uterus to contractile action of oxytocin increases progressively during the
third trimester of pregnancy, especially near term.
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Contd….
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Function
s
These are:
1. To propagate regulatory signals from outside to inside the effector cell when the
molecular
species carrying the signal cannot itself penetrate the cell membrane.
2. To amplify the signal.
3. To integrate various extracellular and intracellular regulatory signals.
4. To adapt to short term and long term changes in the regulatory melieu and maintain
homeostasis.
K.D TRIPATHI: ESSENTIALS OF MEDICAL PHARMACOLOGY; 7TH EDITION. NEW DELHI: JAYPEE BROTHERS; 2013.
Recent
Advances
1. YM-254890 and FR900359:
These are related cyclic depsi-peptide natural products.
Specifically and potently inhibit the Gq subfamily of G proteins.
Is targeted in treatment of CNS disorders.
2. GPR83:
Is currently classified as an orphan receptor.
Mainly localised in the mouse to the CNS.
It has been implicated in behavior, learning, and metabolic regulation.
A biologically active peptide, PEN is now identified as a ligand activating
GPR83.
1. NISHIMURA A. ET. AL.(2010) STRUCTURAL BASIS FOR THE SPECIFIC INHIBITION OF HETEROTRIMERIC GQ PROTEIN BY A SMALL MOLECULE. PROC NATL ACAD SCI; 107(31): 13666–13671.
2. GOMES I ET AL. (2016). IDENTIFICATION OF GPR83 AS THE RECEPTOR FOR THE NEUROENDOCRINE PEPTIDE PEN.SCI. SIGNAL. 9(425): RA43.
Contd….
1. GPR68:
G-protein coupled receptor belongs to a proton sensing family detecting acidic pH.
A potent GPR86 positive allosteric modulator (PAM) named ogerin is identified.
GPR68 plays a role in anxiety.
This suggests a potential new drug target in this and related CNS disorders.
2. CSF1R:
Inhibition of CSF1R by a tyrosine kinase inhibitor results in the blockade of
microglial proliferation on transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer's-like pathology.
There was improved memory and behavioural performance as well as prevention
of synaptic degeneration.
This suggests the therapeutic strategy of modifying CSF1R activation could
ameliorate Alzheimer's disease.
1. HUANG XP, KARPIAK J, KROEZE WK ET AL. (2015). ALLOSTERIC LIGANDS FOR THE PHARMACOLOGICALLY DARK RECEPTORS GPR68 AND GPR65 NATURE 527: 477-83.
2. OLMOS-ALONSO A, SCHETTERS ST, SRI S ET AL. (2016). PHARMACOLOGICAL TARGETING OF CSF1R INHIBITS MICROGLIAL PROLIFERATION AND PREVENTS THE PROGRESSION OF ALZHEIMER'S-LIKE PATHOLOGY
BRAIN : EPUB JAN 8
Contd….
1. Sigma receptor:
It has been a ‘receptor-in-waiting’.
Revealed as ‘fourth’ opioid receptor.
Responds to nociceptin/orphanin.
Has functional impact, in particular in the nervous and cardiovascular systems.
2. Sigma-2 Receptors:
Receptor activation produced both transient and sustained increases in Ca2+ and cytotoxic
effects.
Sigma-2 agonists induced apoptosis in drug-resistant cancer cells.
Also, enhanced the potency of DNA damaging agents.
Sigma-2 receptor agonists may be useful in treatment of drug-resistant cancers.
1. SCHMIDT HR, ZHENG S, GURPINAR E ET AL. (2016). CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF THE HUMAN Σ1 RECEPTOR. NATURE 532(7600): 527-530.
2. WAYNE D BOWEN, ET AL. SIGMA RECEPTORS: RECENT ADVANCES AND NEW CLINICAL POTENTIALS. PHARMACEUTICA ACTA HELVETIAE, VOL 74, ISSUES 2–3, 2000: 211–218.
Summar
y
Receptors are molecules which are essential for majority of biochemical and
metabolic processes in the body.
Extensive research is being done on receptor pharmacology to find out new class
of receptors.
Newer Drug molecules that target different receptor proteins and alter their
physiology are
needed to be searched for.
Discovery about mechanism of orphan receptors can lead to drug development for
the effective treatment of diseases.
Reference
s
1. Goodman, Gilman, L.Bruton: The Pharmacological Basis of
THERAPEUTICS; 12 th Edition. New York: McGraw Hill Medical; 2011.
2. H.P Rang, J.M. Ritter, R.J. Flower, G.Henderson: RANG & DALE’S
Pharmacology; 8 Edition. China: Elsevier; 2016.
th