The Device Layer (Sensors & Actuators)

Part One

Lecturer: Omar Y. Ismael

Systems and Control Engineering Department
Ninevah University
 The Device Layer (Sensors & A c t u a t o r s )

P a r t One & Tw o A i m s :

 Provide a more detailed explanation of technology used in the

Device Layer of Automated Manufacturing Systems
 Sensors
 Actuators
The 3-Level Hierarchical Model

Device Layer
Device Layer

 Consists primarily of Sensors & Actuators

 Devices that connect to Control System Inputs & Outputs

 A Sensor (aka Transducer) is an measurement device which provides a

useable output in response to some form of physical input.

• E.g. a Thermocouple gives a voltage output which is related to the

temperature that is measures.
• A Proximity Switch changes its output state when it detects the presence of
an object.

 We’ll now look at a range of Sensors that have application in Industrial

Automation.
Digital Sensors
Analog Sensors
Proximity Sensors

 Proximity sensors detect the presence of an object without the need to

physically come into contact with it. They usually consist of a sensing
device which is integrated with a transistor switch circuit. On detection of
an object in the vicinity, the switch changes state.

 Proximity sensors are often classified as being inductive or capacitive.

Inductive Proximity Sensor

 Used for the detection of metallic objects.

 The sensor works by generating an alternating magnetic field which is
modified when a metal object is in close proximity to the sensor.

 Typical operational range: up to 5mm. Changes with metal type

Capacitive Proximity Sensor

 Can be used for detecting virtually all materials.

 The sensor works by generating an electric field that is modified when
an object is in close proximity to the sensor.

 Object essentially becomes the 2 nd plate of a capacitor.

 Typical operational range of 1 - 10mm. Dependent on object material
 Photoelectric Sensors

 Photoelectric sensors consist of a light source (transmitter) and a

semiconductor switch (receiver).

 There are four primary categories of photoelectric sensor;

– Through-Beam, Mirror Reflective, Retro-Reflective and Defuse-Reflective.

 Through Beam Photoelectric Sensor

– Seperate Transmitter & Receiver

– Any object passing between breaks the

beam of light and is detected.

– May be used in long range sensing

applications (up to 10m)
Mirror Reflective Photoelectric Sensor

 Transmitter & receiver are again separate.

 A plane surface mirror reflects the

transmitted light to the receiver.
Here the object is detected when
the reflected beam of light is broken.

 Can be useful in circumstances

where it is difficult to mount
Emitter & Receiver directly
opposite one another.
Retro Reflective (Polarising) Photoelectric Sensor

 A special prism reflector which changes the polarisation of the light is

used to return the transmitted light back in the same direction.

 This allows the transmitter & receiver to be housed in same package

and avoids problems of detecting light reflected from objects.

Reflected light with changed polarity

Diffuse Reflection Photoelectric Sensor

 When an incident beam of light hits a non smooth surface (i.e. a surface
which is not a mirror), the light is reflected in all directions. This is
referred to as diffuse reflection.

 The transmitter and receiver are in the same package. Switches ON or

OFF when the diffuse reflection level hits a defined threshold.

Diffused reflected light

 Hall Effect Sensors - 1

 Hall Effect sensors are devices that detect the presence of a magnetic field
 Discovered in 1879 by Edwin Hall
 Observed that if an electric conductor is placed in a magnetic field that is
perpendicular to the current flow in the conductor then a voltage difference is
produced in the conductor orthogonal to the normal current flow.
 Is now basis of a wide range of semiconductor based sensors.

 The basic sensor is often a P-type semiconductor plate as shown above with a DC
source providing a constant current flow across the plate. A second circuit is
connected across the two sides orthogonal to the current flow. Zero volts would
normally be measured across this circuit.
 Hall Effect Sensors - 2

 When a magnet is introduced perpendicular to the current flow

 This alters the flow of the positive electrons and ‘holes’(negative electrons) to the
sides of the plate and the resulting potential difference, the Hall Voltage, can be
measured across these sides.
 The voltage is small and requires amplification to be useful but it provides the basis of
sensor packages which can be used to measure magnetic fields and which with the
addition of switch circuitry can provide very accurate position (and hence speed )
measurement.
 Hall Effect Sensors - 3

 Hall Effect sensors are very widely used for high accuracy positioning measurement
and proximity sensing often where optical systems are unusable because of
problems of contamination or the operating environment.

 They are routinely applied to automotive and engine management applications

(crankshaft sensors etc.) and petrochemical and power generation industry
applications.
Temperature Sensors - Thermocouple

 Consists of two dissimilar connected conductors, which produce a

voltage when heated – the voltage produced being a function of the
difference in temperature between the connection point (hot
junction) and other parts of the circuit (cold junction).

 Cheap & self contained but accuracies better than 1°C are difficult to
achieve.
Temperature sensor application
 Resistive Temperature Detectors

 An RTD is a strip of metallic wire that exhibits a linear positive temperature co-
efficient (usually platinum, nickel or copper). This causes the resistance of the wire
to increase proportionally with temperature.

 A fixed current is passed through the RTD and the voltage across the wire is
measured. From this, the resistance of the wire can be calculated and the
temperature can be determined.

 It is important to note that the current must be limited to a very low level to avoid
self-heating.

 RTDs are much more accurate than thermocouples.

 The accuracy of an RTD can be as good as 0.05%.

 However, they tend to be more expensive.

Position Sensors - Potentiometers

 Position sensors based on potentiometer principles can be used to measure

linear or angular displacement.
 A simple potentiometer is capable of measuring linear displacement over a wide
range of distances. As the position wiper connected to the moving component
moves along the resistor surface the resistance measured will change in
proportion to the distance moved.

DC
supply

Linear
resistor
Slider

Vmeasure

Object
Pressure Sensors

 There are a range of methods of measuring pressure. A common

method is to use a diaphragm based device.

 When a pressure difference arises between the two sides of the

diaphragm, the centre deflects. The amount of deflection is related to
the magnitude of the pressure difference.

Diaphragm
Side A

Side B

Pressure on Side A = Pressure on Side

B
Pressure Sensors

 There are a range of methods of measuring pressure. A common

method is to use a diaphragm based device.

 When a pressure difference arises between the two sides of the

diaphragm, the centre deflects. The amount of deflection is related to
the magnitude of the pressure difference.

Diaphragm
Side A

Side B
Side B

Pressure on Side A > Pressure on Side

B
Pressure Sensors

 When piezoelectric crystal is squeezed, there is a displacement of

charge within the crystal. This causes a potential difference to occur
across the crystal material. Measuring this potential difference, we
can determine the pressure applied to the diaphragm.
Pressure Sensor a p p l i c a t i o n
Strain Gauges
 Strain gauges work on the simple principle that the resistance of a length of wire
(or semiconductor) changes as it is stretched.
 The change in resistance is proportional to the change in length as it is
stretched, hence:
D
=
RR
KE
Where R & ΔR are initial resistance & change in resistance of wire,
K is gauge factor (constant ~2 for metals, ~100 for semiconductors ) and
E is the strain.

 Most metal strain gauges use a flat coil of wire rather than a long linear length.
This allows a good length of wire to be used in a relatively small area.
Strain Gauges

 The change in resistance of the wire is converted into a voltage using a

Wheatstone Bridge.

Strain Guage

Output Voltage

DC Supply
Voltage

 One of the major challenges associated with this type of strain gauge is
the change in resistance of the wire with temperature which of course
can lead to measurement errors. Discuss
Strain Gauges

 One technique involves using a dummy strain gauge in the opposite arm
of the Wheatstone bridge, which is not subjected to any strain.
Therefore, it is only sensitive to the change in temperature.

Strain Guage

Output Voltage

Dummy
Strain
Guage

DC Supply
Voltage
Rotary Encoders

 Rotary Encoders are devices used to determine the angular velocity

(and direction of rotation) of a rotating shaft (typically a rotating drive of
some type.)

 Essentially a glass disk with blacked out areas rotating in the path of a
beam of light: the light is blocked and un-blocked as the disk rotates ,
producing a series of light pulses received by a photo detector – this
can be converted into a digital signal.
Rotary Encoders

Index

 In practice, encoders often have 3 channels – two identical pulse generating

channels offset by 90 degrees & an index channel single providing a once per
rotation pulse used to set a reference point from where to calculate angles.

 The dual channel arrangement allows the speed and direction of travel to be
calculated by determining if channel B is leading or lagging behind channel A.
Frequency of pulse train gives angular velocity

 Encoder resolution = number of lines (blocked areas in each channel);

360 lines = 360 pulses per revolution. Typically we might see a 10bit encoder with
1024 lines => Resolution = 0.3515 degrees.
Linear Encoders

 The same sort of idea can be used to generate a linear encoder by

etching lines on a strip which moves between a light source and a
photo-detector.

 A typical application of rotary and linear encoders in a simple

commodity device – an inkjet printer.
 It should be appreciated that these are velocity encoders which can only be
used to determine position as incremental encoders i.e. we can calculate
position by integrating the angular velocity. This is OK for most applications but
for critical applications there is a problem if power is lost.

 What is that?

 If we have an incremental encoder & we lose power then when power is

recovered we may have lost our reference – we only know where we are
RELATIVE to some initial point.

 This can be overcome using an absolute encoder which has a much more
complicated etching on it and which uses multiple light sources and sensors
which allow it to detect absolute position by interrogating a more complex output.
Absolute Rotary Encoders

Photodetectors

• This is a Tamagawa absolute encoder which outputs angular position to

a resolution of 8 bits (360/256 = 1.4 degrees resolution)
Encoder Application Example