FUNCTIONALLY GRADED

MATERIALS
 DEFINITION
Functionally graded materials (FGM) are composite materials
which are designed to present a particular spatial variation of
their properties.

This is usually achieved by forming a compound of two

components whose volume fraction is changed across a certain
direction.
 ORIGIN/MOTIVATION
The “first” FGM was developed in Japan in 1984-85 as the
result of a spaceplane project.

Although the concept of FGM is recent, many materials that fit

the description have existed for decades.

Some FGM also occur naturally:

• Bones and teeth
• Seashells
ORIGIN/MOTIVATION

Better adherence of a protective layer (against corrosion,

for instance)

Minimization of interfacial stresses between different

materials (e.g. due to temperature variation)

Increase in local fracture thoughness

Relocation of maximum stresses on a load bearing
component
 ORIGIN/MOTIVATION
FGMs allow better customization and tailoring of materials for
specific tasks

Stiffer at clamped end gradation in Y direction

Material Softer at clamped end

More variety in material selection for engineering design

 CLASSIFICATION OF FGMS
FGMs may be compositionally or micro-structurally graded

The gradient is established through a transition function

(usually volume fraction as a function of one or more
spatial coordinates)

FGMs come in several types, depending on their

constituents (e.g. ceramic-metal, metal-metal…)
 GRADATION

Continuous

Stepped
 Ceramic-Metal TiC-Ni, Mullite-Mo, Al-AlB2

Metal-Metal/Intermetallic W-Cu, W-Mo, Al-Al3Fe

Metal-Polymer Al-Polycarbonate

Others

Single material (variation in porosity)

Glass - Ceramic

Ceramic - Ceramic
 MODELING OF FGMS
Some researchers decided upon a basic unit to describe FGMs

The maxel represents the smallest entity in which the

composition of a continuously graded FGM can be defined

Pure Component A

% Component A
% Component B

Pure Component B

It is the equivalent of the build resolution in rapid prototyping processes

(quantitized by voxels – hence maxel = material voxel)
MODELING OF FGMS
1) Assume a preset
variation
 MODELING OF FGMS
2) Linear rule of mixtures (function of local volume
fraction)
In general, applicable only to metal-metal FGMs, may be
used as a first approximation for different compositions

3) Halpin-Tsai
More complex, takes into account the aspect ratio of the
inclusions (s)
 MODELING OF FGMS
4) More:
Mori-Tanaka
Empirical rule of mixtures
…

Other properties such as the Poisson ratio and

thermal expansion coefficient follow similar trends.

Hardness and fracture thoughness of the

resulting material are more difficult to predict and some
examples will be given further ahead.
 TUNGSTEN-COPPER

Tungsten Copper surface:

surface: Good electric
Hard, refractory and thermal
material conductivity
 TITANIUM CARBIDE-NICKEL

Maximum
Peak in hardness
fractureand
thoughness
flexure strength
is achieved
due for
to metal
30 wt.%
phase
Ni. The
changing
metal its
phase
surrounds
behavior from
the TiC
dispersive
particlestoand
connective
hence acts as a toughening phase.
 MULLITE (AL6SI2O13) -MOLYBDENUM

Smoother variation favors resistance to

thermal shock (Vf Mo = 1 – (x /L) p)
 ALUMINUM-POLYCARBONATE

This type of materials is being researched for its

special properties of full wave transmission on one side
(Al) and full dissipation on the other, making it suitable for
NDT (Non-Destructive Testing) probes.
 OPTIMAL DESIGN
As mentioned earlier, FGMs lend themselves well to
being optimized for various performance measures. An
example:
 OPTIMAL DESIGN

Multiobjective optimization – generation of a

Pareto front using genetic algorithms
Experience
aquired from
research into
FGMs has
produced its
results.

Knowledge has
been gained on
which transition
functions are
best suited for
specific tasks
and material
types.
 AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
Ceramic-metal FGMs are particularly suited for
thermal barriers in space vehicles.

They have the added advantage that the metal

side can be bolted onto the airframe rather than bonded
as are the ceramic tiles used in the Orbiter.

Other possible uses include combustion chamber

insulation in ramjet or scramjet engines
 FUEL CELL TECHNOLOGY
Creating a porosity gradient in the electrodes, the
efficiency of the reaction can be maximized
 NUCLEAR FUSION REACTORS
Modification to heat exchangers in tokamak fusion
reactors

Reduction of interfacial stresses → prevention of

delamination effects → increase in lifetime
 JET
SOLIDIFICATION
- Solid freeform process
- Ultimately requires
sintering of the resulting
green body

PRESSURE
FILTRATION
- Versatile process that can be
adapted to produce both axial and
radial gradients
- Also requires sintering
 DIRECTIONAL SOLIDIFICATION

- Melt processing (no

sintering step required)
- Only axial gradients

- Material processed
at low speed on which the
shape of the transition
function is heavily dependant
upon
 SINTERING

- Using a conventional oven, microwave or

laser beam

- External pressure may or may not

be applied
PROCESSING METHODS
 CONCLUSIONS
Functionally graded materials are still a very
recent area of research (and thus very active)

Current research is mostly focused on

uncovering the complex nature of fracture mechanics due
to material nonhomogeneity as well as in
developing/improving forming processes so that the
target gradient is achieved with precision