Renewable Energy Systems

Photovoltaic Materials and Electrical

Characteristics

Source: Masters (Chapter 8)

Electrical Engineering
Muhammad Jafar
Introduction
What is photovoltaic
Device or material capable of converting energy in a photon of light into an electrical
voltage and current
A photon with high enough energy and proper wavelength can knock an electron off from
the atom
Electron travels under the influence of an electric potential
Establishing an electric current

Fun fact
Earth receives 6000 times more solar energy than our total demand
History of PV
1839: A French scientist Edmund Becquerel was able to establish a voltage by illuminating
a metal electrode in a weak electrolytic solution

1876: Adam and Day studied PV effect in solids by making cells out of Selenium which were
1 to 2% efficient

1904: Einstein explained the PV effect (Nobel prize)

1920s – 1950s: Czochralski process for growing single-crystal silicon PVs

1950s: still too expensive, large scale adoption had to wait

1970s: energy crisis accelerates the development of PV

1980s: efficiency started to increase

Latest efficiency data
1980s: costs dropped
Latest price trend
1980s: applications
• Pocket calculators
• Solar watches
• Offshore buoys
• Highway lights
• Signs
• Emergency call boxes

1990s: PV for off-grid and on-grid

power
Basic semiconductor physics
PVs are made of semiconductors
like other electronic components
such as
Transistors
Diodes

Made of group IV elements

mostly Si

Doped with group III or group V

elements mostly B and P
Silicon atomic
structure
Four valence electrons
Crystalline silicon structure (valence electrons shared)
The band gap energy
A few facts about silicon
Perfect insulator at absolute zero (no free electrons)
Some electrons become free as temperature increases and are available to flow as a
current
Conductivity increases with temperature (opposite to what happens in metals)
Conductivity still lower than metals at ambient temperatures (semiconductor!)
Conductivity can be enhanced by adding impurities
Quantum theory tells us the difference between conductors and semiconductors
with the help of energy-band diagrams
Electrons
   can only hold certain energy
defined by bands
The further the orbit of an electron from
the nucleus, the higher energy band it
exists in
The top-most band is the conduction band
in which electrons can flow freely as
electric current
Metals have partially filled conduction
bands while semiconductors have no
electrons in conduction bands at absolute
0
Gaps between energy bands are forbidden
bands
The energy that an electron needs to jump
to the conduction band is called band-gap
energy (units electron-volt or eV)
Band gap energy for silicon is 1.12 eV
Electrons need this energy to jump
into the conduction band
Some electrons get this energy
thermally
For PV, energy is provided by photons
of light
An electron getting energy from a
photon jumps to conduction band
leaving behind net positive charge
(hole)
In the absence of a mechanism to
drive away the electron, the electron
will recombine with the hole emitting
a photon (LED working principle)
Electrons from nearby valence
shells can move into the hole
without additional energy input
The hole seems to move
This is a current as well

Conclusion: Photons with enough

energy can create electron-hole
pairs in a semiconductor material
 Photon mathematics
Frequency, wavelength, and speed

Photon energy

 energy in the photon ()

 Planck’s constant
Example
Lessons from the example
 Photon with wavelength more than
1.11 m will not have sufficient
energy to knock an electron off
 Alternatively, photon with frequency
less than 2.7*10^14 Hz will not have
sufficient energy to knock an
electron off
 Such photons will only increase the
temperature

 Photons with shorter wavelengths

than 1.11 m (frequency more than
2.7*10^14 Hz) will impart more
energy than required to knock off an
electron
 Excess energy will again increase the
temperature and appear as heat loss
The solar spectrum
Recall that the sun emits radiation with the spectral characteristics of a 5800 k
blackbody.

Solar insolation outside earth’s atmosphere (solar constant) 1.377 kW / sq. m.

Lots of this radiation is absorbed in the atmosphere as it travels towards the

surface of the earth
The
  terrestrial
insolation and its
spectral distribution
depends upon how
much of atmosphere it
has passed through (air
mass ratio, )
 AM1 means sun is
directly overhead
 AM0 means ET solar
spectrum
 AM 1.5 is used for PV
work (sun 42 above
the horizon)
 Fig shows spectrum at
AM 1.5
Band-gap impact on photovoltaic efficiency
Any photon with wavelength greater
than 1.11 m will not produce PV
energy

Any photon with wavelength less than

1.11 m will have its excess energy
wasted as well

We can calculate lost percentages with

the help of spectrum shown in figure
 20.2% lost due to low energy photons
 30.2 % lost due to excess energy
 49.6% available for capture

Energy lost is because of the band-gap

limit of silicon
What if the band-gap is smaller
 More wavelengths of photons will be able to eject electrons
 More energy from lower wavelength photons will be lost as heat

What if the band-gap is wider

 Fewer wavelengths of photon will eject electrons
 Lower wavelength photons with most energy

Current and voltage

 Low band-gap: plenty of low energy electrons, high current low voltage
 Wide band-gap: fewer high-energy electrons, low current high voltage

Power is the product of voltage and current

We arrive at a compromise between 1.2 eV and 1.8 eV for best efficiency and highest power
Band-gap versus theoretical
maximum efficiency
considering
losses because of photon
wavelengths
Recombination of holes and
electrons before electrons move
away and contribute to current
Photons passing right through
the cell or not being absorbed
due to reflection
Internal cell resistance
The p-n junction
Pure silicon has a pitfall: electron released will fall back into the hole

Means no current

Solution: creation of a built-in potential which could drive away the electron from
its location

Achieved by doping of the material in two ways creating two regions

One region doped with small amount of trivalent element

Second region doped with small amount of pentavalent element
Pentavalent ”donor” addition (1 P for 1000 Si atoms)
Free electrons available, called n-type- material
Trivalent “acceptor” addition (1 B for 1000000 Si atoms)
Hole available, Called p-type material
What if we connect a p- and n-type material
At the junction, free electrons from n-type will fill the holes in the p-type material
Leaving excess –ve charge on the p-side and excess positive charge on the n-side
This will prevent further movement of free charges across the junction
An internal electric field is created
Region where p- and n-type materials are joined is devoid of free charge carriers
Called depletion region
Depletion region width 1 m and voltage is around 1 V
Field strength is thus 10 kV / cm
Field direction from positive to negative: will push positive charge in the direction of the field
The p-n junction diode
What we just discussed is a diode
A forward voltage Vd applied across the diode will force forward current flow Id
Current in the reverse direction will be minute if we apply voltage in the opposite direction I0
Forward voltage drop is very small (0.7 for Si and 0.3 for Ge)
Real
  diode symbol is blackened triangle with a bar (non ideal)
Current in the diode given by

 electron charge
 Boltzmann’s constant
 Junction temperature in Kelvin
The p-n junction diode
Using the values we get

At standard temperature of 25 C = 298 K

Example
 An “ideality factor” in the diode equation is sometimes used

 if charge carrier transport is purely diffusion

 if charge carrier transport is primarily recombination
A generic photovoltaic cell
Photons create electron-hole pairs in the material
Electrons and holes near the depletion regions are pushed towards n- and p-sides
under the influence of the electric field
Excess electrons in n-type and excess holes in p-type
Extra potential is available
External connection of p and n sides through a load can force current
Electrons flow and holes don’t but the direction of conventional current is
opposite to the direction of electron flow
The simplest equivalent circuit for a photovoltaic cell
Currents and voltages
Short circuit
• current through the external short circuit (Id = 0 since Vd = 0)
• So the current source magnitude should be ISC
Current equation

Use
Look closely at the equation

Current I is simply diode current inverted and offset by a value given by ISC
Open circuit voltage
 Put I = 0 in

 We get

 At 25C

Remember ISC is directly proportional to solar insolation on the PV cell

Current-voltage characteristics can be drawn for varying solar insolation using these
equations
Currents are often mentioned as current densities per sq. cm of junction area
Example
Plot for both cases
A more accurate equivalent circuit for a PV cell
Model discussed so far is good but not so good

What if there is a string and a few cells are

shaded

The shaded cell appears to block all the

current to the load

Shading is bad but not that bad

There is some power delivered to the load

We need a better equivalent circuit

Better model

Equation of output current

Output current characteristic
Parallel resistance is very large
Represents small power loss
Usually less than 1%

Common rule

Example of a large cell

ISC equal to 7 A and VOC equal to 0.6 V
RP should be greater than 9 
An even better equivalent circuit model for a PV cell
Considers effect of loss proportionality to output current

Series resistance RS caters for

Contact resistance between cell and load
Internal resistance of semiconductor
Calculations
Current and voltage equations

Put value of Vd from (8.14) into (8.8)

Plot of equation
Cell with a loss < 1% due to series resistance

Example large cell

ISC = 7 A, VOC = 0.6 V
RS < 0.0009 
Generalized equivalent circuit for a PV cell with series and shunt
resistance
Circuit

Equation

At standard temp.

Equation cannot be solved

Solution is to assume incremental values of Vd and calculate corresponding values

of output voltage V and output current I

Apply KCL at the top node labelled Vd

Diode current equation at 25C

Assume a value of Vd
Calculate I for that Vd

Calculate cell output voltage V with

Repeat for various possible values of Vd

An example plot of characteristics with
From cells to modules to arrays
A single cell hardly produces 0.5 V – too small a voltage to be useful

A module is useful – a string of cells connected in series to build up voltage

Typical module has 36 cells (18 V?)

Designated 12 V module

There are 72-cell modules as well (24 V module if all are in series)
Can have a flexible connection arrangement (series as well as parallel)
Can be a 24 V module at one time (all cells in series)
Can be a 12 V module at another (2 parallel strings of 36 cells in series)
Multiple modules can be connected in series and parallel to get an array
Will produce desired voltage and current levels ultimately power

How many modules in series and how many in parallel is a design question
From cells to a module
Voltage builds up when cells are connected in series

Equation for module current calculation the same as for single cell

Module output voltage calculation

Example
Solution
From modules to arrays
Arrays are modules connected in series and parallel

Modules in series increase voltage

Modules in parallel to increase current
Array wiring
Series modules connected in parallel (a), preferred (because removal of a string does not
affect voltage)
Parallel modules connected in series (b)
The PV I-V curve under standard test conditions (STC)
 Circuit conditions of a module not connected to any external load
 Circuit conditions of a short-circuited module
 Circuit conditions of a module feeding a load

A condition which cannot be achieved in practice

Why?
Because loads draw currents according to their impedance and voltage applied
A linear load I-V characteristic is a straight line with slope = (I/V)

Let’s assume for the time being that it is possible to control voltage and current across and
through a load
Current, voltage and power curves

Increase voltage, increase power until a point

After the point, current starts to decrease and so does the power
Another way to determine maximum power point
Understand that the area under the curve is power
The largest area rectangle that can be fitted under the I-V characteristics gives
the maximum power point
Metric

Typical fill factors between 70-75% for crystalline silicon solar modules
50-60% for multi-junction amorphous Si modules
Standard test conditions necessary for comparison of modules made by different
manufacturers
Solar insolation: 1 kW/m2
Standard spectral distribution 
Cell (not ambient) temperature = 25 C
Comparative data under standard test conditions
Impact of temperature and insolation on I-V curves
Impact of insolation
Data provided by manufacturers
Impact
SC Current comes down as insolation drops
OC voltage is not impacted greatly
Impact of temperature and insolation on I-V curves
Impact of temperature
Data provided by manufacturers
Impact
OC voltage comes down with increasing temp
SC Current increases only slightly

Significant: temp should be considered while

making calculations
Impact of temperature and insolation on I-V curves
Cause of temperature rise
Only a fraction of incident light is converted to
electricity
The rest is converted to heat and raises the
temperature

Manufacturers specify a parameter

Nominal operating cell temperature (NOCT) under
certain standard conditions
• Ambient temperature = 20 C
• Solar insolation = 0.8 kW per sq. m.
• Wind speed = 1 meter per second
Generalized equation for cell temperature
Example
What to do in case NOCT is not specified
Use the following

 is a proportionality factor and depends upon

Wind speeds
Ventilation standard
Typical values between 25 C and 35 C
Means cells are around 25 to 35 C warmer than the ambient environment
Shading impacts on I-V curves
Module output decreases drastically due to shading
Even if a small part is shaded

Without special efforts a single shaded cell can reduce output to below 50%

Luckily there are solutions

Physics of shading
Consider the figure

All sunny, no problem

Current from each cell I

Current in RP is very small

Consider the “shady” case 

Shaded cell current source reduced to 0

Current I from other cells flow through RP

Large voltage drop in the shaded cell
Module voltage output assuming all others produce
proper voltage and current

With all other cells in the sun

Put

in
We get

Change in voltage from unshaded to shaded

RP>>RS , 
Impact: dramatic reduction in voltage at any given output current
Example

Solution
a. Drop in module voltage
b. all current goes through the parallel and series resistance of shaded module
The voltage drop across the shaded cell is thus

c. power dissipated in the shaded cell

Extension of shading to multiple cells
Resulting characteristics: Battery charging currents severely impacted
Bypass diodes for shade mitigation
Important to note that shading causes
Not only output reduction
Also possible hotspots and damage

Normal cell operation

Adds voltage to the module output
Shaded cell operation
Causes voltage reduction
Dissipates power
Because the module current flows through RP
What if there is a bypass arrangement?
The solution

Sunny situation
Cell develops positive voltage
Bypass diode is reverse biased
Carries no current

Shaded condition
The cell does not produce voltage
Bypass diode forward biased
Carries the current and none flows through RP
Some voltage drops (almost 0.6 V)
Much smaller compared to the case without this diode
Impractical to place a bypass diode across each cell
A bypass installed across an entire module is more practical
Or a single bypass across several cells in a module

Such diodes cannot impact output at the module level

Very important in the context of an array
A module in a string can drag down the string current that we don’t want
Example: 5-module string characteristics with and without bypass diode
Impact on battery charging current delivered by the string (2 cells shaded)
How does this happen
Blocking diodes
When strings are in parallel, voltage drop will cause a string to draw current
because of lower output voltage of the shaded string
We need to block reverse current