Exam Bio2021

BACTERIA
Objectives:
1. discuss bacterial morphology, nutritional
requirements and metabolic
2. state the procedure of bacterial gram-

staining and acid-fast staining and their
interpretation
Introduction:
The bacteria are microscopic, unicellular organism
which belongs to kingdom Monera ( simple
forms of life )
They are classified according to:

1. morphology
2. staining reaction
3. nutritional requirements
4. source of energy
5. biochemical reactions / activities
Morphology
a) Shape
b) Arrangement
c) Size
• important biological function
that help cells cope with and
adapt to external conditions
SHAPE :
1.) COCCUS ( pl. cocci )

▪ spherical or berry-shaped
2.) BACILLUS ( pl. bacilli )

▪ rod – shaped or cylindrical
in shape
▪ some are short and thick ;
others are slender and elongated
3.) SPIRALS
a) vibrio = comma –shaped
b) spirilla = thick, rigid spiral
c) spirochete
▪ a thin, flexible spiral
▪ axial filaments ( motility )
Examples:
✔Borrelia = loose coils
✔Treponema = regular tight
coils
✔Leptospira = tight coils ( 1 end is
hook-like )
SIZE:
• Unit of measurement is in micrometer
• A micrometer equals 1/1,000,000 or 10 – 6 of a
meter.
• An average coccus is about 0.5-2.0
micrometer (µm) in diameter.
• An average bacillus is 0.5-1.0 µm wide by
1.0-4.0 µm long.
• Spirals range in size from 1 µm to over 100 µm
in length.
https://microbenotes.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/Bacterial-Size.jpg
ARRANGEMENT:
A.) Round/Spherical Group:
1. Coccus = singly
2. Diplococcus = in pairs
3. Streptococcus = in chains
4. Staphylococcus = in clusters; grape-like
5. Tetrad = in 4’s
6. Sarcinae ( Octads ) = in 8’s
B.) Rod/ Elongated / Cylindrical Group:
1. Bacillus = singly
2. Streptobacilli = in chains
3. Coccobacilli = semi-round/elongated
4. Diptheria = Chinese –letter ; palisade
( resembling picket fence )
5. Fusiform = pointed ends
6. Filamentous = hypha-like
7. club-shaped ( spore-forming )
8. Lepra bacilli = in parallel or cigar-packet
BACTERIAL STAINING
• a process of introducing color into a
bacterium
• Stain ( chemical used )
• Purpose:
To observe bacterial morphology
Kinds of Staining:
1.) Simple ( Direct ) Staining
▪ uses only one kind of stain
▪ sufficient to determine bacterial shape
and arrangement
▪ eg: methylene blue; safranin, etc.
2. Special Staining
▪ intended to color the special structures
of a bacterium like the flagellum(a),
spores, capsule, granules, etc. that will
aid in the diagnosis
3.) Indirect / Relief / Negative Staining

▪ intended to identify bacteria with poor
staining properties
▪ the background takes up the stain and not
the bacterium ( India Ink for spirochetes )
4. Differential Staining
▪ Uses 2 or more stains
▪ Purpose:
To differentiate one large group of
bacteria from another
▪ Examples:
a.) Gram Staining
b.) Acid Fast Staining
GRAM STAINING:
• Developed by the Danish bacteriologist Hans
Christian Gram in 1884
• differentiates Gram ( + ) from Gram ( - ) organisms
• Requirements:
1. Smear
2. Primary stain = crystal violet
3. Mordant = Gram’s Iodine
4. Decolorizer = acetone or alcohol
5. Secondary stain = safranin
6. Water and Microscope
Interpretation of Gram Staining:
Cell wall component = PEPTIDOGLYCAN
Gram ( + ) = BLUE or VIOLET

= retain the primary stain as they
resist decolorization by alcohol
Gram ( – ) = RED or ORANGE
= the primary stain is decolorized by
alcohol thus, it takes up the
secondary stain ( safranin )
https://rsscience.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/gram-stain-gram-positive-and-
negative-bacteria-1024x547.jpg
https://slideplayer.com/slide/12089675/70/images/32/Gram+variable+organisms%3A.jpg
Gram Variable Organism
General Rules for Gram Staining
1.All cocci are gram positive

except the Neisseria.
2.All bacilli are gram negative
except the acid fast,
diphtheria and spore-forming
groups.
ACID FAST STAINING:
• Purpose:
To differentiate acid fast from non-acid
organisms
▪ Requirements:
1. Smear
2. Primary stain = carbol fucshin
3. Mordant = heat
4. Decolorizer = acid alcohol
5. Secondary stain = methylene blue
6. Water and Microscope
Interpretation of Gram Staining:
Cell wall component = MYCOLIC ACID
Acid Fast = RED or PINK
= retain the primary stain as they
resist decolorization by alcohol
http://universe84a.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/07/AFB-stain-of-sputum-showing-AFB-positive.jpg
Non – Acid Fast = BLUE or PURPLE
= the primary stain is decolorized
by acid alcohol thus, it takes up
the secondary stain ( safranin )
COCCI
Characteristics:
1. All cocci are Gram (+) except Neisseria,
Veillonella, Micrococcus & Branhamella.
2. All cocci are non-motile and encapsulated,
except Planococcus
3. All cocci are non-sporeformers
4. All cocci are catalase (+) except Streptococcus.
5. Many cocci are pyogenic
BACTERIAL PHYSIOLOGY & GENETICS
OBJECTIVES
1. Discuss the physiological requirements for
bacterial growth
2. List the various nutritional types of
bacteria.
3. Define phototroph, autotroph,
heterotroph, and chemotroph.
4. Discuss the types of catabolic and anabolic
reactions occurring in certain groups of
microorganism.
BACTERIAL PHYSIOLOGY
• study of function of processes and
reactions within a bacterium
• It focuses on bacterial NUTRITION and
METABOLISM
Nutrition
• process by which chemical
substances ( nutrients) are

acquired from the surrounding
environment and used in cellular
activities such as metabolism
and growth
Nutritional Requirements of Bacteria
Six Major Elements:
1. Carbon
2. Hydrogen
3. Oxygen
4. Nitrogen
5. Phosphorus
6. Sulfur
Others:
1. Sodium
2. Potassium
3. Chlorine
4. Magnesium
5. Calcium
6. Iron
7. Iodine
8. Some trace elements
TERMS:
Growth Requirements:
1. Essential nutrients
2. Non-essential nutrients
O2 Requirements:
Aerobes = utilize O2 as it final
electron acceptor
Obligate aerobes = cannot live in
the absence of O2 ; have ETC ;
cannot ferment
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis
- Mycobacterium leprae
- Neisseria gonorrhoeae
- Bordetella pertussis
Facultative anaerobes = is an aerobic
organism that can utilize
fermentation ( O2 is absent ) &/or
aerobic respiration ( O2 is present )
- Bacillus anthracis
- Corynebacterium diphtheriae
- Salmonella spp.
- Staphylococcus aureus
- Vibrio cholerae
Anaerobes = does not need O2 as the
final electron acceptor ; employs
fermentation to generate ATP
Obligate ( strict ) anaerobes = unable to

grow in the presence of
molecular oxygen
- Clostridium botulinum
- Clostridium tetani
Aerotolerant anaerobes = a
non-facultative anaerobe that is able
to grow in the presence of molecular
O2 ; uses fermentation ( ATP
production)
- Streptococcus mutans
Microaerophiles = unable to grow
when O2 concentrations reach
20% ( air ), instead, require only
2-10% O2 for growth
- Treponema palladium
Laboratory
Specimen
Set-up
Nutritional Types of Organism
A.) ENERGY SOURCE ( ATP )

1.) Phototrophs
• use light as energy source
2.) Chemotrophs
• use inorganic or organic
chemical as an energy source
B.) CARBON SOURCE
1.) Autotrophs
• use inorganic CO2 as the
source of carbon in making
their own food
2.) Heterotrophs
• use organic compounds as the
source of carbon as they
cannot manufacture their own
food
C. Source of NADH ( H+ )
1.) Lithotrophs = inorganic substrate

like CO2
2.) Organotrophs = organic substrates

Combinations
#1 - Light & Organic compounds
PHOTOHETEROTROPHS /
PHOTOORGANOTROPHS
• Anaerobic photosynthetic bacteria that use
ethanol or acetate.
• They can also grow aerobically on ethanol or
acetate as typical chemoorganotrophs.
• E.g. Rhodobacter and Choroflexus
#2 - Light & Inorganic compounds
PHOTOAUTOTROPHS/ PHOTOLITHOTROPHS
• plants and blue green algae (Cyanobacteria)

#3 - Organic & Organic
CHEMOHETEROTROPHS/CHEMOORGANOTROP
HS
• many of the common bacteria; Pseudomonas,
Bacillus, Lactobacillus, E.coli, Clostridium and
animals
#4 - Inorganic & Inorganic
CHEMOAUTOTROPHS/ CHEMOLITHOTROPHS
• hydrogen bacteria
• nitrite (nitrobacter)
• ammonia (Nitrosomonas)
• Iron bacteria
• Strict aerobes
• Very important in soil and oceans
BACTERIAL METABOLISM
Catabolic ( energy –producing reaction)
1.) Cellular Respiration of Glucose
Phase 1: Glycolysis
• heterotrophs degrade starch &
glycogen
• autotrophs synthesize glucose
from photosynthesis to drive
other metabolic reactions
Phase 2: TCA/ Kreb’s Cycle
• NADH and FADH2 from the
complete oxidation of glucose
and other substrates which can
be converted into acetyl CoA
Phase 3: ETC
• NADH and FADH2 oxidation to
generate ATP
• O2 is involved ( aerobic )
• aerobes and facultative anaerobes
are much more efficient in energy
production because they can utilize
O2 which can aid in the production of
more ATP ( final electron acceptor)
2.) Anaerobic Fermentation
C6H12O6 → 2 C2H5OH + 2 CO
Humans = PA to LA
Lactobacillus spp. = PA to LA ( tooth
decay )
Saccharomyces ( yeast ) = PA to ethanol
Acetobacter = PA to ethanol to acetic acid
3.) Aerobic Oxidation by Chemoautotrophs
H2 --------------------- H2O
C & CO ------------- CO2
NH3 & NO2-1 ------ NO3-1
H2S & S ------------- SO4 – 2
Fe --------------------- Fe2O3 or FeO
- soil & water recycling bacteria

- rust promoting bacteria
4.) Anaerobic Respiration by
Chemotrophs
• REDOX occurs in the absence of O2
• electron acceptors include:
- NO3-1 ------ NO2-1
- CO3-2 ------ CO2 + CH4
- SO4-2 ------ S or H2S
- soil, sea water, fresh water, acid mine

water, sewage and sulfur springs
- Less ATP production
Anabolic ( energy – utilizing reaction )
1.) Photosynthesis
= glucose synthesis from carbon
dioxide and water
2. Chemosynthesis = a process by which
inorganic compounds are extracted
from the environment and
converted into organic compounds
in the absence of sunlight
- bacteria found on volcanic vents
on ocean floor, hot springs and
wetlands ( chemoauotrophs )
- most bacteria, protozoa, fungi and
all animals ( chemoheterotrophs )
BACTERIAL GROWTH
• Bacterial growth is a complex process that involves
numerous anabolic and catabolic reactions, which
result in cell division.
• Specifically focuses on the increase in bacterial
number(mass ) rather than their size.
• Is influenced by environmental factors like:
a.) moisture
b.) pH
c.) temperature
d.) amount of nutrient
e.) waste products of other microorganisms
Bacterial Culture = the process of purposely
growing microorganism on a certain
medium ( agar )
= pure ; mixed ; contaminated
Characteristics of a Good Culture Medium:

1. Contain proper nutrients
2. Have the right moisture
3. Kept at optimum temperature
4. Have the right pH
5. sterile
Classification of Bacteria:
A.
B. Effect of light
= majority are chemosynthetic & exposure
to light kills them ( heating & drying )
C. Effect of Moisture
= abundance of H2O favors growth while a
total lack of H2O ( dessication ) prevents
them from growing
Humidophilic = those that require increased

moisture
D. Effect of pH
1. acidophilic ( acid – loving )
= pH 5.5
= Lactobacillus acidophilus
Actinomyces viscosus
Nocardia spp., and
Streptococcus mutans
2. alkalinophilic ( alkaline – loving )
= pH 8.0
= Vibrio cholerae
3. Most pathogenic bacteria favor pH 7.2 for
growth
E. Effect of Oxygen ( refer to the previous slides )
F. Effect of Osmotic Pressure

Osmophilic = can withstand high osmotic
pressure
Halophilic = can grow in a solution of high salt
concentration
G. Effect of Carbon Dioxide
Capnophilic = require high CO2 content for
growth
= Haemophilus influenzae
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Bacterial Genetics & Reproduction
Reproduction: BINARY FISSION
Kinds of Bacterial Genetic Alteration:
1. Transduction
2. Transformation
3. Conjugation
4. Lysogenic Conversion
5. Mutation
MENINGOCOCCAL MENINGITIS
KISHA CLAIRE S. REFAMONTE,

BSN-1 OREM
OVERVIEW & BACKGROUND:
• Meningococcal disease is an acute, potentially severe
illness.
• Illness believed to be meningococcal disease was first
reported in the 16th century.
• The first definitive description of the disease was by
Vieusseux in Switzerland in 1805.
• The bacterium was first identified in the spinal fluid of
patients by Weichselbaum in 1887.
• Meningitis is characterized by inflammation of the
membranes (meninges) around the brain or spinal cord.
•
Overview: cont’d
Meningococcal disease occurs worldwide in both
endemic and epidemic form.
• Meningococcal disease is most common in very young
infants, teens, and young adults, and those older than
65 years.
(1) CAUSATIVE AGENT:
• Bacteria called Neisseria meningitidis cause
meningococcal disease.
:
(2) CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAUSATIVE AGENT
• The bacterium Neisseria meningitidis, also called

meningococcus, causes meningococcal meningitis.
Meningococcal bacteria may cause infection in a part of
the body – the skin, gastrointestinal tract, or respiratory
tract, for instance. The bacteria may then spread through
the bloodstream to the nervous system. When it gets
there, it causes meningococcal meningitis. Bacteria can
also enter the nervous system directly after severe head
trauma, surgery, or infection.
(3) SOURCE/S OF INFECTION:
• Infected areas such as the nasal sinuses or from the
cerebrospinal fluid.
• The bacteria that cause meningococcal disease are
common and live naturally at the back of the nose
and throat.
(4) MODE/S OF TRANSMISSION :
• They are passed from person to person
through prolonged close contact, coughing,
sneezing, breathing each other's breath or by
kissing someone who is carrying the germ
(5) PORTAL OF ENTRY :
• The illness occurs when the bacteria break
through the protective lining of the nose and
throat, and enter the bloodstream
(6) SIGNS and SYMPTOMS:
• Signs and symptoms of meningococcal disease
usually start suddenly and include fever,
headache, and a stiff neck. It can start with
symptoms similar to influenza (flu). Often people
with meningococcal disease also
have nausea, vomiting, increased sensitivity to
light, rashes, and confusion.
(7) PATHOGENESIS ( diagram /flowchart ):
(8 ) DIAGNOSIS: ( Laboratory or Clinical or both )
• Meningitis can be diagnosed based on a medical history,
a physical exam and certain diagnostic tests like Imaging
through computerized tomography (CT) or magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI, Spinal tap (lumbar puncture),
and blood cultures.
(9) CONTROL AND PREVENTION:
• Keeping up to date with recommended
vaccines is the best defense
against meningococcal disease. Maintaining
healthy habits, like getting plenty of rest and
not having close contact with people who are
sick, also helps.
:
( 10 ) TREATMENT
- Doctors treat meningococcal disease with a number of

antibiotics. If a doctor suspects meningococcal disease, they
will give the patient antibiotics right away. Antibiotics
help reduce the risk of dying.
- Depending on how serious the infection is, people with
meningococcal disease may need other treatments,
including:
• Breathing support
• Medications to treat low blood pressure
• Surgery to remove dead tissue
• Wound care for parts of the body with damaged skin
DIPHTHERIA
Janvia Guzman Apa-ap BSN – I

Orem
Diphtheria was first described by Hippocrates in the fifth

century BC, and throughout history diphtheria has been a
leading cause of death, primarily among children. The
diphtheria bacterium was first identified in the 1880s by F.
Loeffler, and the antitoxin against diphtheria was later
developed in the 1890s. Diphtheria manifests as either an
upper respiratory tract or cutaneous infection and is caused
by the aerobic gram-positive bacteria, Corynebacterium
diphtheria.
Overview: cont’d
Before the introduction of vaccines, diphtheria was a leading

cause of childhood death around the world, including in the
United States. Due to the success of the U.S. immunization
program, diphtheria is now nearly unheard of in the United
States. However, the disease continues to cause illness globally
and there have been outbreaks reported in recent years. In 2018,
countries reported more than 16,000 cases of diphtheria to the
World Health Organization, and there are likely many more
cases.
– Corynebacterium Diphtheriae
(2) CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAUSATIVE AGENT :
• Corynebacterium Diphtheriae is a part of the
Corynebacteriaceae family and genus
Corynebacterium
• Bacteria are small pleomorphic, aerobic, non-

spore forming bacilli.
• They are Gram positive and slightly club shaped.

Characteristics: cont’d
Corynebacterium diphtheriae cells can be

arranged as single cells, in pairs, in V forms,
in palisades, or in clusters Footnote. They are
non-motile and catalase positive.
– Slender rods
– Clubbing at both ends
– Pleomorphic
– Non-capsule / Acid fast Gram positive (+)
– Granules are composed of polymetaphosphate
– Staining with Leoffler’s methylene blue show
bluish purple metachromatic granules with
popular bodies
– Diphtheria is a serious infection caused

by strains of bacteria.
Toxin – That can cause people to get very

sick.
Source/s of Infection: cont’d
– Cases of diphtheria 5%
– Carriers 95%
• Diphtheria bacteria usually spread

from person to person through
respiratory droplets, like from
coughing or sneezing.
• Touching open sores with diphtheria
skin infection
– Tonsils
– Nose
– Throat
The main symptoms of diphtheria are:
– Sore throat
– Feeling sick
– Difficulty breathing and swallowing
– A thick grey – white coating at the back of
your throat.
– A high temperature (fever) of 38°C or above.
– Head ache
– Swollen glands in your neck
Signs and Symptoms: cont’d
If it affect your skin (cutaneous diphtheria) it can

cause:
– Pus – filled blisters on your legs, feet and

hands
– Large ulcers surrounded by red, sore –
looking skin
Pathogenesis: cont’d
The pathogenesis of diphtheria is based upon two primary
determinants: (1) the ability of a given strain of C
diphtheriae to colonize in the nasopharyngeal cavity and/or
on the skin, and (2) its ability to produce diphtheria toxin.
Since those determinants involved in colonization of the

host are encoded by the bacteria, and the toxin is encoded
by the Corynebacteriophage, the molecular basis of
virulence in C diphtheriae results from the combined effects
of determinants carried on two genomes.
Doctors usually decide if a person has diphtheria by

looking for common signs and symptoms. They can swab
the back of the throat or nose and test it for the bacteria
that cause diphtheria. A doctor can also take a sample from
an open sore or ulcer and try and grow the bacteria.
• Immunization is the form of prevention
• Vaccines that can help prevent diphtheria
Four kinds of vaccines used today protect against
diphtheria, all of which also protect other diseases.
1. Diphtheria and tetanus (DT) vaccines
2. Diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis (DTaP)
3. Tetanus, diphtheria and pertussis (TDaP)
vaccines
4. Tetanus and diphtheria (TD) vaccines
( 10 ) TREATMENT :
– Using diphtheria antitoxin to stop the toxin made by

the bacteria from damaging the body.
– Before giving an antitoxin, doctors may perform skin
allergy tests. These are done to make sure that the
infected person doesn’t have an allergy to the antitoxin.
– If someone has an allergy, he or she needs to be
desensitized to the antitoxin. Doctors do this by
initially giving small doses of the antitoxin and then
gradually increasing the dose.
Treatment: cont’d
– Using antibiotics to kill and get rid of the

bacteria.
Typhoid Fever
Jhon Loyd Dumpa, BS Nursing – I,

OREM
• Typhoid fever, also known as enteric fever, is a
potentially fatal multisystemic illness. The terms
typhoid and enteric fever are commonly used to
describe both major serotypes.
• Typhoid fever has a wide variety of presentations
that range from an overwhelming multisystemic
illness to relatively minor cases of diarrhea with low-
grade fever. The classic presentation is fever, diffuse
abdominal pain, and constipation
• Salmonella typhi
:
• Salmonella typhi has a rod-shaped

conformation and is aerobic. Aerobic
organisms are living things that require oxygen
to survive. This bacteria is also Gram-negative,
meaning that it has a three-layer cell
membrane, essentially.
• Primary Source
– Feces and urine of cases and carriers
– Feces carriers are more frequent than urinary carriers.
• Secondary Source
Contaminated
- Water
- Food
- Fingers
- Flies
• People who drink contaminated water or eat
food washed in contaminated water can
develop typhoid fever. Other ways typhoid fever
can be contracted include: using a toilet
contaminated with bacteria and touching your
mouth before washing your hands. eating
seafood from a water source contaminated by
infected poo or pee.
:
(5) PORTAL OF ENTRY
• The portal of entry for Salmonella Typhi

infection is the mouth, usually through
ingestion of contaminated water or food.
Infection occurs in a susceptible human
host. The incubation period shortens and
the risk for infection and disease increases
with the ingested dose.
• Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever have similar symptoms̵. People usually have a
sustained fever (one that doesn’t come and go) that can be as high as 103–104°F
(39–40°C).
• sick with stomach pains
Other symptoms of typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever include
• Weakness
• Stomach pain
• Headache
• Diarrhea or constipation
• Cough
• Loss of appetite
• Some people with typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever develop a rash of flat, rose-
colored spots.
• A diagnosis of typhoid fever can usually be

confirmed by analysing samples of blood, poo
(stools) or pee (urine). These will be examined
under a microscope for the Salmonella typhi
bacteria that cause the condition. The bacteria
aren't always detected the first time, so you
may need to have a series of tests.
• Wash your hands. Frequent hand-washing in hot, soapy water is the best way to control
infection. Wash before eating or preparing food and after using the toilet. Carry an alcohol-
based hand sanitizer for times when water isn't available.
• Avoid drinking untreated water. Contaminated drinking water is a particular problem in areas
where typhoid fever is endemic. For that reason, drink only bottled water or canned or bottled
carbonated beverages, wine and beer. Carbonated bottled water is safer than non-carbonated
bottled water.
• Ask for drinks without ice. Use bottled water to brush your teeth, and try not to swallow water in
the shower.
• Avoid raw fruits and vegetables. Because raw produce may have been washed in contaminated
water, avoid fruits and vegetables that you can't peel, especially lettuce. To be absolutely safe,
you may want to avoid raw foods entirely.
• Choose hot foods. Avoid food that's stored or served at room temperature. Steaming hot foods
are best. And although there's no guarantee that meals served at the finest restaurants are safe,
it's best to avoid food from street vendors — it's more likely to be infected.
:
( 10 ) TREATMENT
• Two vaccines are available.
• One is given as a single shot at least one week

before travel.
• One is given orally in four capsules, with one
capsule to be taken every other day.
• Neither vaccine is 100% effective. Both require
repeat immunizations because their effectiveness
wears off over time.
Escherichia coli infection
Agnes Emerald Chavez, BSN1 OREM

• Escherichia coli (E. coli) is a Gram-negative,
rod-shaped, facultative anaerobic bacterium.
This microorganism was first described by
Theodor Escherich in 1885. They are either
nonmotile or motile by peritrichous flagella. E
coli is a major facultative inhabitant of the large
intestine.
Overview: cont’d
• Escherichia coli is one of the most frequent
causes of many common bacterial infections,
including cholecystitis, bacteremia, cholangitis,
urinary tract infection (UTI), and traveler's
diarrhea, and other clinical infections such
as neonatal meningitis and pneumonia.
• Escherichia coli serotype O15:H7

:
• Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7 is a gram-

negative, rod-shaped bacterium that produces
Shiga toxin(s). This rare variety of E.coli produces
large quantities of potent toxins that cause severe
damage to the lining of the intestines, leading to
hemorrhagic colitis.
• A person might get E. coli infection by coming
into contact with the feces, or stool, of humans
or animals.
• Primary sources of Shiga toxin-producing
Escherichia coli (STEC) outbreaks are raw or
undercooked ground meat products, raw milk,
and faecal contamination of vegetables
Indirect contact (vehicle)
• -E. Coli infection can be transmitted by
consuming contaminated food and water.
• It can spread to the urinary tract of women by
wiping from back to front.
The portal of entry of E. coli infection are the

gastrointestinal, and genitourinary tracts.
-Specifically, the mouth and urethra.
Some people don't notice any symptoms. Symptoms
usually starts 3-4 days after you come in contact with the
E. coli. The main symptoms are:
Bloody diarrhea
Stomach cramps
Nausea and vomiting
Pale skin
Fever
Weakness
Bruising
– Decreased urine output
1. LAB diagnosis:
• (Sample collection)
• UTI- urine
• Acute diarrhea - feces and rectal swab
• Pyogenic meningitis - CSF analysis
2. Microscopy
(Gram staining)
• gram negative bacilli and non sporing rods
• The prevention of infection requires control
measures at all stages of the food chain, from
agricultural production on the farm to
processing, manufacturing and preparation of
foods in both commercial establishments and
household kitchens.
• Wash hands properly.
Control and Prevention : cont’d
Follow the five keys to safer food:
• Keep clean.
• Separate raw and cooked.
• Cook thoroughly.
• Keep food at safe temperatures.
• Use safe water and raw materials.
:
( 10 ) TREATMENT
Most people recover without specific treatment in

five to ten days. For uncomplicated cases,
rehydration may be all that is required. Fluid and
electrolyte replacement is important when diarrhea
is watery or there are signs of dehydration.
Antibiotics are often avoided in E. coli O157:H7
(STEC) infections, since some evidence suggests
that antibiotic treatment may precipitate
complications such as HUS.
LEPROSY
Ferly Shynn B. Talaruc , BSN1-Orem

• Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease and is
commonly known as Hansen’s disease.It is one
of the most common causes of nontraumatic
peripheral neuropathy worldwide. The disease
has been known to man since time immemorial.
DNA taken from the shrouded remains of a
man discovered in a tomb next to the old city of
Jerusalem shows to be the earliest human to
have suffered from leprosy.
Overview: cont’d
• Leprosy was once feared as a highly
contagious and devastating disease, but now it
does not spread easily and its treatment is very
effective. However, if left untreated, the nerve
damage can result in crippling of hands and
feet, paralysis, and blindness.
• Disease is produced by exposure of a
susceptible host to an noxious agent in the
presence of environmental factors that aid or
hinder agents of disease.
Overview: cont’d
• The greatest risk factors for developing leprosy
is contact with another person infected by
leprosy. People who are exposed to a person
who has leprosy are 5-8 times more likely to
develop leprosy than members of the general
population. Leprosy also occurs more
commonly among those living in poverty.
• The agent that causes Hansen’s disease is an

acid fast rod-shaped bacillus. Leprosy is
caused by slowly-growing, noncultivable, acid-
fast bacterium called Mycobacterium leprae.
The causative agent of leprosy—
Mycobacterium leprae is the first bacterium to
be identified as causing disease in humans.
:
• Stain with Ziehl Neelsen carbol fuchsin

• Cannot be grown in bacteriological media or cell
cultures
• Present intra and extracellularly, forming
characteristic clumps called Globi.
• Has parallel sides and rounded ends, measuring 1-
8 microns in length and 0.2-0.5 micron in a
diameter, and closely resembles the tubercle
bacillus.
• Polar bodies present as clubbed forms.
• Lateral buds.
• Branching is observed
• Dead appear as fragmented with granules.
• All patients with “active leprosy” must be
considered infectious.
• Nasal discharge, skin lesions of patient and
close contact with the untreated patients.
• Main Reservoir: Human being
• Animal Reservoir: (rare from 2 other species)
chimpanzees and nine-banded armadillos
which is transferred to humans.
• Transmission by inhalation
• Droplet infection (most common)
• Transmission by contact
• Skin to skin contact with infectious cases
• Contact with soil or fomites
• Other Routes:
• Insect vectors: mosquito, bedbugs
• Tattooing needles
• Broken/abraded skin
• Nasal mucosa
• Others: breast milk, placental
• Common symptoms that are present in the
different types of leprosy include a runny nose; dry
scalp; eye problems; skin lesions; muscle
weakness; reddish skin; smooth, shiny, diffuse
thickening of facial skin, ear, and hand; loss of
sensation in fingers and toes; thickening of
peripheral nerves; a flat nose due to destruction of
nasal cartilage; and changes in phonation and
other aspects of speech production. In addition,
atrophy of the testes and impotence may occur.
• The gold standard that is used to diagnose leprosy

is skin biopsy.
• Skin lesion consistent with leprosy and with
definite sensory loss.
• Positive skin smears
• Lepromin skin test
• Avoiding physical contact with untreated people
• People who are in immediate contact with the
leprosy patient should be tested for leprosy.
• Annual examinations
• Multidrug therapy
:
( 10 ) TREATMENT
• Multidrug Therapy
– Antibiotics
• Dapsone & rifampicin (paucibaillary leprosy)
• Clofazimine, dapsone & rifampicin
(multibacillary leprosy)
• Anti-inflammatory drugs
• Thalidomide
ANTHRAX
Mary Lyza Bella D. Lantaca BSN1-

Orem
Anthrax is a serious infectious disease caused by

gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria known as Bacillus
anthracis. Anthrax can be found naturally in soil and
commonly affects domestic and wild animals around
the world. This disease can cause severe illness in both
humans and animals.
Overview: cont’d
Robert Koch , a German physician who first identified

the bacterium that caused the anthrax disease. Additionally,
this disease was thought to have originated in Egypt and
Mesopotamia. Many scholars think that in Moses’ time,
during the plagues of Egypt, anthrax may have caused
what was known as the fifth plague, described as a sickness
affecting horses, cattle, sheep, camels and oxen.
Overview: cont’d
NOTE THAT ANTHRAX IS NOT CONTAGIOUS.
People get infected with anthrax when spores get

into the body. When anthrax spores get inside the body,
they can be activated. When they become activated, the
bacteria can multiply, spread out in the body, produce
toxins (poisons) and cause severe illness.
Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by the

bacterium Bacillus Anthracis which is the major
member of the genus Bacillus, as it is notoriously a
frank pathogen for skin and gut and above all for the
airways where it causes the said disease.
:
Bacillus anthracis is a gram positive and rod-shaped

bacterium. The only permanent pathogen within the genus
Bacillus. Its infection is a type of zoonosis as it is
transmitted from animals to humans.
B anthracis can readily grow on sheep blood agar

leading to the formation of rough gray white colonies of 4
to 5 mm, with characteristic comma-shaped or “comet-tail”
protrusions.
Anthrax can be found naturally in soil and
commonly affects domestic and wild animals.
Although, people can get sick with anthrax if they
come in contact with infected animals or contaminated
products.
Source/s of Infection: cont’d
There’s no evidence that anthrax is transmitted from

person to person, but it’s possible that this may be
contagious through contact with infected animals or
contaminated object (fomite). This bacteria usually
enter the body through a wound in the skin.
Most people who get sick from anthrax are exposed
while working with infected animals or animal
products such as wool, hides or hair. Moreover, people
get anthrax also by breathing spores, eating food or
drinking water that is contaminated with spores or
getting spores in a cut or scrape in the skin.
Mode/s of Transmission: cont’d
Some people also eat raw or undercooked meat from

infected animals may get sick with gastrointestinal anthrax.
Additionally, a newly discovered type of anthrax is
injection anthrax and this has been seen in northern Europe
where people injecting heroin.
Gastrointestinal Anthrax develops after eating

contaminated meat. When spores germinate in the
intestinal tract, they cause ulcerative lesions.
The symptoms of anthrax depend on the type of

infection and can take anywhere from 1 day to more than
2 months. All types of anthrax have the potential, if
untreated, to spread throughout the body and cause
severe illness and even death.
Signs and symptoms: cont’d
Cutaneous anthrax:
•A group of small blisters or bumps that may itch
•Swelling can occur around the sore
•Painless skin sore
Signs and symptoms: cont’d
Gastrointestinal anthrax:
•Fever •Swelling of neck •Sore throat •Hoarseness
•Nausea and vomiting •Diarrhea •Headache •Flushing
(red face) and red eyes •Stomach pain •Fainting
•Swelling of abdomen
Anthrax is caused by the spore forming, gram-
positive bacterium Bacillus anthracis. The bacterium’s
major virulence factors are the anthrax toxins and an
antiphagocytic polyglutamic capsule. These are encoded
by two large plasmids, the former by pX01 and the latter
by pX02
Doctor will ask questions to determine the likelihood of

having been exposed to anthrax. The doctor will first want
to rule out other more common conditions that may be
causing signs and symptoms such as flu or pneumonia.
Diagnosis: cont’d
Doctor may require to have a rapid flu test to quickly

diagnose a case of influenzia. There are other tests also
to look for anthrax such as skin testing, blood tests,
chest X-ray or computerized tomography scan, stool
testing and spinal tap (lumbar puncture).
A person can reduce risk of anthrax by having the

anthrax vaccine. The only vaccine that’s approved by
the FDA is the Biothrax. The said vaccine is 92.5%
effective notes by the FDA.
:
( 10 ) TREATMENT
Antibiotics are usually used to treat anthrax.

Antibiotics that may be prescribed include penicillin,
doxycycline and ciprofloxacin. Inhalation anthrax is
treated with a combination of antibiotics such as
ciprofloxacin plus another medicine. They are given by
intravenously.
Treatment: cont’d
Antitoxin target anthrax toxins in the body and

eliminates the toxins caused by B. anthracis infection
as opposed to attacking the bacteria itself.
TUBERCULOSIS
ROMELYN GALAURA
SAGLIBA, BSN1 , OREM
Tuberculosis (TB) is a disease caused by bacteria
that are spread from person to person through the air.
TB usually attacks the lungs, but it can also attack

and damage any part of the body, such as the brain,
kidneys, or spine. A person with TB can die without
treatment.
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by a bacterium called

Mycobacterium tuberculosis. The bacteria usually
attack the lungs, but TB bacteria can attack any part
of the body such as the kidney, spine, and brain. Not
everyone infected with TB bacteria becomes sick
(2) CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CAUSATIVE AGENT :
Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the organism that is
the causative agent for tuberculosis (TB).
There are other "atypical" mycobacteria such as M.

kansasii that may produced a similar clinical and
pathologic appearance of disease.
M. avium-intracellulare (MAI) seen in
immunocompromised hosts (particularly in persons
with AIDS) is not primarily a pulmonary infection in
terms of its organ distribution (mostly in organs of the
mononuclear phagocyte system).
Tuberculosis (TB) is caused by a type of bacterium

called Mycobacterium tuberculosis. It's spread when a
person with active TB disease in their lungs coughs or
sneezes and someone else inhales the expelled
droplets, which contain TB bacteria.
When someone who has TB coughs, sneezes, talks, laughs, or
sings, they release tiny droplets that contain the germs. If you
breathe in these germs, you can get it. TB isn’t easy to catch. You
usually have to spend a long time around someone who has a lot of
the bacteria in their lungs. You’re most likely to catch it from co-
workers, friends, and family members. Tuberculosis germs don’t
thrive on surfaces. You can’t get it from shaking hands with
someone who has it or by sharing their food or drink.
Tuberculosis is transmitted through the air, not by
surface contact. Transmission occurs when a person
inhales droplet nuclei containing M. tuberculosis, and
the droplet nuclei traverse the mouth or nasal
passages, upper respiratory tract, and bronchi to reach
the alveoli of the lungs
Latent TB doesn’t have symptoms. A skin or blood test
can tell if you have it.Signs of active TB disease
include:
●A cough that lasts more than 3 weeks
●Chest pain
●Coughing up blood
SIGNS and SYMPTOMS: cont’d
● Feeling tired all the time

● Night sweats
● Chills
● Fever
● Loss of appetite
● Weight loss
Infection occurs when a person inhales droplet nuclei

containing tubercle bacilli that reach the alveoli of the
lungs. These tubercle bacilli are ingested by alveolar
macrophages; the majority of these bacilli are destroyed
or inhibited.
There are two common tests for tuberculosis:
● Skin test. This is also known as the Mantoux tuberculin skin test. A
technician injects a small amount of fluid into the skin of your lower
arm. After 2 or 3 days, they’ll check for swelling in your arm. If
your results are positive, you probably have TB bacteria. But you
could also get a false positive. If you’ve gotten a tuberculosis
vaccine called bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG),
DIAGNOSIS: cont’d
But you could also get a false positive. If you’ve gotten a

tuberculosis vaccine called bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG), the
test could say that you have TB when you really don’t. The results
can also be false negative, saying that you don’t have TB when you
really do, if you have a very new infection. You might get this test
more than once.
DIAGNOSIS: cont’d
● Blood test. These tests, also called interferon-gamma release

assays (IGRAs), measure the response when TB proteins are
mixed with a small amount of your blood.
To help stop the spread of TB:
● If you have a latent infection, take all of your

medication so it doesn’t become active and
contagious.
CONTROL AND PREVENTION: cont’d
● If you have active TB, limit your contact with other

people. Cover your mouth when you laugh, sneeze,
or cough. Wear a surgical mask when you’re around
other people during the first weeks of treatment.
CONTROL AND PREVENTION: cont’d
● If you’re traveling to a place where TB is common,

avoid spending a lot of time in crowded places with
sick people.
( 10 ) TREATMENT :
Your treatment will depend on your infection.
● If you have latent TB, your doctor will give you medication to
kill the bacteria so the infection doesn’t become active. You
might get isoniazid, rifapentine, or rifampin, either alone or
combined. You’ll have to take the drugs for up to 9 months. If
you see any signs of active TB, call your doctor right away.
Treatment: cont’d
● A combination of medicines also treats active TB. The most
common are ethambutol, isoniazid, pyrazinamide, and rifampin.
You’ll take them for 6 to 12 months.
● If you have drug-resistant TB, your doctor might give you one
or more different medicines. You may have to take them for
much longer, up to 30 months, and they can cause more side
effects.
Treatment: cont’d
Whatever kind of infection you have, it’s important
to finish taking all of your medications, even when
you feel better. If you quit too soon, the bacteria can
become resistant to the drugs.
PERTUSSIS
Johanna M. Beliganio , BSN 1, Orem

• Pertussis, a respiratory illness commonly
known as whooping cough, is a very
contagious disease caused by a type of a
bacteria called Bordetella pertussis. These
bacteria attach to the cilia (tiny, hair-like
extensions) that line part of the upper
respiratory system. The bacteria release toxins
(poisons), which damage the cilia and cause
airways to swell.
Overview: cont’d
• In many people, it’s marked by a severe hacking
cough followed by a high-pitched intake of breath
that sounds like “whoop”. Pertussis spreads
easily from person to person mainly through
droplets produced by coughing or sneezing.
Before the vaccine was developed, whooping
cough was considered a childhood disease.
• Bordetella Pertussis
:
• Bordetella pertussis are small

• Gram negative
• Aerobic
• Pathogenic
• Encapsulated
• Non-motile
• Coccobacilli with outer pilli
• Whooping cough is caused by a type of
bacteria called Bordetella pertussis. When an
infected person coughs or sneezes, tiny germ-
laden droplets are sprayed into the air and
breathed into the lungs of anyone who happens
to be nearby.
• People with pertussis usually spread the
disease to another person by coughing or
sneezing or when spending a lot of time near
one another where you share breathing space.
• The infection gets into your body through your
nose, mouth or eyes.
• The classic symptoms of pertussis are a
paroxysmal cough, inspiratory whoop, and
fainting, or vomiting after coughing.
• The illness usually starts with mild respiratory
symptoms include mild coughing, sneezing, or a
runny nose. After one to two weeks, the
coughing classically develops into uncontrollable
fits, sometimes followed by a high-pitched
“whoop” sound as the person tries to inhale.
• Pertussis is transmitted by aerosols and infects
the ciliated epithelium of the airways. There is no
further dissemination of the infection, but
bacterial toxins produced in the respiratory tract
contribute to local and systemic disease
pathogenesis.
• There are several tests to confirm whooping
cough. The doctor can swab the patient’s nose
and/or throat. A lab will check the swab for
whooping cough bacteria. The doctor also may
want to get a blood sample or take a chest X-ray.
• The best way to prevent pertussis (whooping
cough) among babies, children, teens, pregnant
women, and adults is to get vaccinated.
• Keep babies and other people at high risk for
pertussis complications away from infected people.
• Two vaccines in the United States help prevent
whooping cough:
• DTaP and Tdap.
:
( 10 ) TREATMENT
• Healthcare providers generally treat pertussis

with antibiotics and early treatment is vey
important.
• Macrolides erythromycin, clarithromycin, and
azithromycin are preferred for the treatment of
pertussis in persons 1 month of age and older.
• Treatment makes the infection less serious if
we start it early before the coughing fits begin.
GONORRHEA
Mariz Macasero, BS in Nursing ,

Orem
Gonorrhea, also known as "the clap," is a sexually
transmitted disease (STD) caused by Neisseria
gonorrhoeae bacteria. While gonorrhea can cause
symptoms including vaginal or penile discharge and
pain when urinating or during sex, it often comes with
no such hints at all.
Gonorrhea affects both men and women and can be
transmitted to newborns at birth. More than 500,000
cases are reported in the United States each year—and
the rate is rising.
Overview: cont’d
As a bacterial infection, gonorrhea is treated with
antibiotics, however, Neisseria gonorrhoeae has become
resistant to most antibiotics and reinfection is common. If
left untreated, gonorrhea can cause severe complications
including miscarriage, infertility, septic arthritis, and even
blindness.
This venereal disease is caused by a bacterium

Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which is also known as
gonococcus.
:
• As a bacteria, it belongs to the phylum Proteobacteria,

class Betaproteobacteria, Neisseriales, family
Neisseriaceae, and genus Neisseria.
• Neisseria species are fastidious, Gram-negative cocci that

require nutrient supplementation to grow in laboratory
cultures. Neisseria species are facultatively intracellular
and typically appear in pairs (diplococci), resembling the
shape of coffee beans.
• Nesseria is non-spore-forming, capable of moving using
twitching motility, and an obligate aerobe (requires oxygen
to grow).
• Neisseria gonorrhoeae is a gram-negative obligate human

pathogen that contains lipooligosaccharide (LOS) as a
major constituent within the outer membrane. LOS plays a
major role in pathogenesis by inducing host inflammatory
responses and also enabling evasion of host innate
immunity through sialylation.
• The immunoglobulin A (IgA) protease secreted by pathogenic
Neisseria species cleaves Lamp1, thereby altering lysosomes in
a cell and promoting bacterial intracellular survival.
• Neisseria gonorrhoeae, have fimbriae that allow them to attach

to host cells and cause the disease gonorrhea.
• Pili mediate attachment to mucosal cell surfaces and also are

antiphagocytic. Piliated gonococci are usually virulent, whereas
nonpiliated strains are avirulent.
Urethral / Endocervical discharge

• Gonorrhoea is transmitted from one person to
another through sexual activities, including oral sex.
• Other means of getting this disease is from a

pregnant woman who is infected to her unborn
child. It happens during the process of childbirth.
The portal of entry is through the mucous membranes

of the genitals, mouth or anus.
• Half of women with gonorrhoea do not show symptoms.
Even if they do, they tend to mild or similar to other
infections such as yeast or bacterial infection. This makes
the symptoms difficult to identify.
• Others show vaginal discharge, usually watery, creamy, or
slightly green.
• Pain or burning sensation when urinating
• Sore throats
• Lower abdominal pain
• Pain during sexual intercourse
Signs and Symptoms : cont’d
• In men, some may not develop noticeable symptoms

for weeks. In fact, some may never develop
symptoms.
• Usually, the first symptom in men is a burning
sensation during urination.
• Greater frequency of urination
• Swelling or redness at the tip of the penis
• A persistent sore throat
• Pain or swelling in the testicles
Gonoccoci
Get attached by Pili
to columnar epithelial cells (urethra)
Produce marked polymorphonuclear response in the submucosa

(Anterior urethra)
Purulent exudates fill up the anterior urethra (male)

Inflammatory process extends to the posterior urethra
Granular tissue formed in mucosa and submucosa
Eventual fibrosis and scarring
Stricture urethra (complication)

Sample: urethral/cervical/vaginal discharge
• To obtain a urethral specimen swab ( cotton or rayon

swab) is inserted approximately 2cm in urethra and rotated
gently before withdrawing.
• If there is profuse urethral discharge in male, it can be
collected without inserting the swab.
• A few drops of first voided urine can be used in males, but
the sensitivity is low compared to discharge.
Diagnosis: ( Laboratory or Clinical or both ) : cont’d
• Transport: Swabs collected for isolation of

gonococci may be transported to the laboratory in
modified Staurt’s or Amie’s charcoal transport
media and held at room temperature until inoculated
to culture media. Good recovery of gonococci is
possible if swabs are cultured within 12 hours of
collection.
Diagnosis: ( Laboratory or Clinical or both ) : cont’d
• Gram Staining
For men, a gram-stained smear of urethral discharge (exudate)

showing intracellular Gram-negative diplococci is diagnostic.
But as women may carry normal vaginal flora such as
Veillonella or occasional gram-negative coccobacilli , may
resemble gonococci, same results in case of women may not
be diagnostic so culture and identification process is needed,
which is a confirmatory test.
• Don't Have Sex : The best way of preventing gonorrhea,
or any sexually transmitted disease (STD), is to practice
abstinence (not having vaginal, oral, or anal sex).
• Be Faithful : Another way to reduce your chances of

getting infected is to have a sexual relationship with
only one partner who has been tested for gonorrhea and
is not infected. Be faithful to each other, meaning that
you only have sex with each other and no one else.
• Use Condoms : Condoms should be used for any type

of sex, with every partner. For vaginal sex, use a latex
male condom or a female polyurethane condom. For
anal sex, use a latex male condom. For oral sex, use a
dental dam, which is a rubbery material that can be
placed over the anus or the vagina before sexual
contact.
• Understand Birth Control : Know that some methods

of birth control, like birth control pills, shots, implants,
or diaphragms, will not protect you from sexually
transmitted disease. If you use one of these methods,
be sure to also use a latex condom or dental dam (used
for oral sex) correctly every time you have sex.
:
( 10 ) TREATMENT
Gonorrhea is treated with a single dose of

Azithromycin by mouth, or through injection of
Ceftriaxone. As of 2015-2016, the Center for Disease
Control (CDC) and World Health Organisation (WHO),
only recommends the use of either Ceftriaxone or
Azithromycin in the treatment of gonorrhoea.

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BACTERIA

2. state the procedure of bacterial gram-

They are classified according to:

1.) COCCUS ( pl. cocci )

2.) BACILLUS ( pl. bacilli )

3.) Indirect / Relief / Negative Staining

Gram ( + ) = BLUE or VIOLET

1.All cocci are gram positive

substances ( nutrients) are

Obligate ( strict ) anaerobes = unable to

A.) ENERGY SOURCE ( ATP )

1.) Lithotrophs = inorganic substrate

2.) Organotrophs = organic substrates

• plants and blue green algae (Cyanobacteria)

- soil & water recycling bacteria

- soil, sea water, fresh water, acid mine

Characteristics of a Good Culture Medium:

Humidophilic = those that require increased

F. Effect of Osmotic Pressure

KISHA CLAIRE S. REFAMONTE,

• The bacterium Neisseria meningitidis, also called

- Doctors treat meningococcal disease with a number of

Janvia Guzman Apa-ap BSN – I

Diphtheria was first described by Hippocrates in the fifth

Before the introduction of vaccines, diphtheria was a leading

• Bacteria are small pleomorphic, aerobic, non-

• They are Gram positive and slightly club shaped.

Corynebacterium diphtheriae cells can be

– Diphtheria is a serious infection caused

Toxin – That can cause people to get very

• Diphtheria bacteria usually spread

If it affect your skin (cutaneous diphtheria) it can

– Pus – filled blisters on your legs, feet and

Since those determinants involved in colonization of the

Doctors usually decide if a person has diphtheria by

– Using diphtheria antitoxin to stop the toxin made by

– Using antibiotics to kill and get rid of the

Jhon Loyd Dumpa, BS Nursing – I,

• Salmonella typhi has a rod-shaped

• The portal of entry for Salmonella Typhi

• A diagnosis of typhoid fever can usually be

• Two vaccines are available.

• One is given as a single shot at least one week

Agnes Emerald Chavez, BSN1 OREM

• Escherichia coli serotype O15:H7

• Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7 is a gram-

The portal of entry of E. coli infection are the

Most people recover without specific treatment in

Ferly Shynn B. Talaruc , BSN1-Orem

• The agent that causes Hansen’s disease is an

• Stain with Ziehl Neelsen carbol fuchsin

• The gold standard that is used to diagnose leprosy

Mary Lyza Bella D. Lantaca BSN1-

Anthrax is a serious infectious disease caused by

Robert Koch , a German physician who first identified

People get infected with anthrax when spores get

Anthrax is an acute infectious disease caused by the

Bacillus anthracis is a gram positive and rod-shaped

B anthracis can readily grow on sheep blood agar

There’s no evidence that anthrax is transmitted from

Some people also eat raw or undercooked meat from

Gastrointestinal Anthrax develops after eating

The symptoms of anthrax depend on the type of

Doctor will ask questions to determine the likelihood of