Faizah Amir

JKE POLISAS 1
Learning Outcomes

By the end of this lesson, students should be

able to :

1. explain the diode characteristics

2. explain diode application as rectifier
3. explain diode application as clipper and clamper
4. explain zener diode
5. explain light emitting diode (LED), photodiode and
laser diode
2
 Introduction
Do you have a driving license?
What is the meaning of this
signboard?

3
Diode

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that

conducts electric current in only one direction.

A diode allows an electric current to pass in one

direction (called the diode's forward direction) while
blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse
direction).
4
Diode

Physical Structure

5
 Diode Biasing

A diode is forward biased A diode is reversed biased

Current is allowed to Current is blocked.

flow in the circuit.

6
Silicon Diode I-V Characteristic Curve
If

Ir *Threshold Voltage (Vth) is also

known as ‘Knee Voltage’
When Id, Vd exceeds the maximum power of the diode, (Pmax)
diode will reach its burning level. 7
Silicon Diode I-V Characteristic Curve

1. Threshold voltage is also known as ‘knee voltage’.

Threshold Voltage is the minimum forward voltage
of a diode at which the diode will start to conduct
current. The threshold Voltage is approximately
0.7V for silicon diodes.

2. Forward current is the amount of current that the

diode is able to conduct when the diode is forward
biased.

3. Reverse current is the amount of current through

the diode when the diode is reverse biased. It is
sometimes referred as leakage current.

4. Breakdown Voltage is the minimum reverse

voltage to make the diode conduct in reverse.

8
 Diode As Rectifier
One of the important applications of a semiconductor diode
is in rectification of AC signals to DC.

Rectifier is a circuit that converts AC (from mains or other

AC source) to DC power by using diodes.

9
 Diode As Rectifier

There are many possible ways to construct

rectifier circuits using diodes. The three basic
types of rectifier circuits are:

a.Half- Wave Rectifier

b.Full -Wave Rectifier
c. Bridge Rectifier

10
 Half- Wave Rectifier
Vin

Vout

in Vout

During the positive half cycle of the source, the diode is forward biased
and operates as a closed switch. The source voltage is directly connected
across the load.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and acts as an
open switch. The source voltage is disconnected from the load. No
current flows through the load, so the load voltage Vout is zero. 11
 Half- Wave Rectifier
If a DC voltmeter is connected to measure the output voltage of the half-wave
rectifier (across the load resistance), the reading obtained would be the average
load voltage, Vave, also called the DC output voltage.
Vout ( peak )
Vave 

+Vp

The value of the average load current is the value that would be
measured by a DC ammeter. Vave
Iave 
RL 12
 Half- Wave Rectifier
Example 1

The input of a half-wave rectifier circuit is given as 10Vpp. A 50 load

resistance is connected across the half wave rectifier. Determine the DC
output (average) voltage and DC current.

Solution
Vin 10Vpp
Vin  10Vpp Assuming that the diode is an ideal Vout    5Vp
diode 2 2
Vout ( peak ) 5Vp
Vave  VDC    1.59V
 
Vave 1.59V
Iave    31.84mA
RL 50

13
 Half- Wave Rectifier
Example 2

A 1k load resistance is connected across a half wave rectifier. The input
supply voltage is 12Vrms at 50 Hz. Determine the DC output (average)
voltage and DC current.

Solution

First, we have to convert the rms voltage into peak-to-peak voltage:

Vrms  0.707 x Vp
*rms – root mean square
Vrms 12Vrms
Vp    16.97Vp This is the value of the input voltage in Vp
0.707 0.707
Assuming that diode in the circuit is an ideal diode:
Vout ( peak )  Vin ( peak )  16.97Vp

Vout 16.97Vp Vave 5.40V

Vave  VDC    5.40V and Iave    5.40mA
  RL 1k
14
 Exercise Questions
1. Referring to the below circuit:
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

a) Calculate the root mean square voltage of Vin.

b) Calculate the approximate peak value of the output if D1 is a silicon
diode.
 

15
 Full- Wave Rectifier

FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER USING CENTER-TAPPED TRANSFORMER

Output Voltage

16
Full- Wave Rectifier

Output Voltage

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 Full- Wave Rectifier
The transformer has a centre-tapped secondary winding. This secondary
winding has a lead attached to the centre of the winding. The voltage from
the centre tap to either end terminal on this winding is equal to one half
of the total voltage measured end-to-end.

Circuit operation

During the positive half cycle of the input, diode D1 is forward biased and
diode D2 is reverse biased. The direction of the current is through the load.

During the negative half cycle, the polarity reverses. Diode D2 is forward
biased and diode D1 is reverse biased. The direction of current through the
load has not changed even though the secondary voltage has changed
polarity. Thus, another positive half cycle is produced across the load.

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Full- Wave RectifierVAB
VM __

-VM __
A

VA-0
0
VP = ½ V M
Output VP __
Voltage
B t
-VP __

V0-B

VP __

-VP __

VOUT
VP __

t
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 Full- Wave Rectifier
Calculating Load Voltage and Currents

The full wave rectifier produces twice as many output pulses as the half wave rectifier.

2Vout ( peak )
Vave 


Output voltage
Vp
(Vout)

20
 Full- Wave Rectifier
Example 3

In the full-wave rectifier circuit, the transformer secondary winding is given as

50Vpp. The load resistor is 10k. The diode used in the circuit is silicon
diode. Determine the DC output voltage and DC output current.
Solution A

VAB  50Vpp 0 Output

Voltage
50Vpp B
VA  0   25Vpp
2
25Vpp
Vout ( peak )   0.7V  12.5Vp  0.7V  11.80V
2
2Vout ( peak ) 2 x11.80V 23.60V
VDC  Vave     7.51V
  
Vave 7.51V
IDC  Iave    0.75mA
RL 10k 21
 Bridge Rectifier

AC Vout
Vin Voltage
Source

22
 Bridge Rectifier
Circuit Operation

During the positive half cycle, both D3 and D1 are forward biased. At the same
time, both D2 and D4 are reverse biased. The direction of current flow through
the load.

in

RL

23
 Bridge Rectifier
Circuit Operation

During the negative half cycle, D2 and D4 are forward biased and D1 and D3
are reverse biased. Again, note that current through the load is in the same
direction although the secondary winding polarity has reversed.

in

RL

24
 Exercise Questions
2. Referring to the below circuit:
 
  
  T1
  ______Vout
 
 

Given that the ratio of the transformer T1 is 5:1 and all diodes are made of
germanium.

a) Calculate the value of VDC.

b) Calculate the value of IDC.
  c) Sketch the waveform of the input voltage at point A-B and the output
voltage across RL.

25
 Diode As Clipper
• Clipper circuits have the ability to ‘clip off’ a portion of
the input signal without distorting the remaining part of
the alternating waveform.
• Application : To limit the voltage of the electronic
circuit to prevent component damage.

• There are two general categories of clippers:

i. Series : diode is in series with the load
ii. Parallel (or shunt) : diode in a branch parallel to the
load.

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 Diode As Clipper
SERIES POSITIVE CLIPPER

+Vp

-Vp -Vp

During the positive half of the input voltage, the diode D is reverse biased the
diode and it acts as an open switch. Therefore all the applied voltage drops across
the diode and none across the resistor. As a result of this there is no output
voltage during the positive half cycle of the input voltage.

During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, diode D is forward biased and
the diode and it acts as a closed switch. All the input voltage is dropped across
the resistor as shown in the output waveform.
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 Diode As Clipper
SERIES POSITIVE CLIPPER WITH BIAS
The clipping takes place during the positive cycle only when the input
voltage is greater then the battery voltage (i.e. Vi > V). The chipping level
can be shifted up or down by varying the bias voltage (V).

a) Positive Biased

b) Negative Biased

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 Diode As Clipper
SERIES NEGATIVE CLIPPER

During the positive half cycle of the voltage, the diode D is forward biased and
it acts it as a closed switch. As a result, all the input voltage appears across the
resistor.

During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, the diode D is reverse
biased and it acts as an open switch. Thus, there is no voltage drop across the
resistor during the negative half cycle as shown in the output waveform.

29
 Diode As Clipper
SERIES NEGATIVE CLIPPER WITH BIAS

Clipping takes place during the negative half cycle only when the input
voltage Vi > V. The clipping level can be shifted up or down by varying the
bias voltage ( -V).
a) Positive Biased

b) Negative Biased

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 Diode As Clipper
SHUNT OR PARALLEL POSITIVE CLIPPER

When the input voltage is positive (i.e. Vi > 0), the diode acts as a closed
switch and the output is zero volt.

When the input voltage is negative (i.e. Vi< 0) acts an open switch and all
the input voltage appears across the resistor.

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 Diode As Clipper
SHUNT OR PARALLEL POSITIVE CLIPPER WITH BIAS

a) Positive Biased

b) Negative Biased

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 Diode As Clipper
SHUNT OR PARALLEL NEGATIVE CLIPPER

For a positive input voltage (i.e. Vi > 0) the diode D is reversed biased and
acts as an open switch. All the input voltage appears across the resistor.

For negative input voltage (i.e. Vi < 0) the diode D acts as a closed switch
and the output is zero volt.

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 Diode As Clipper
SHUNT OR PARALLEL NEGATIVE CLIPPER WITH BIAS

a) Positive Biased

b) Negative Biased

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 Diode As Clipper
DUAL (COMBINATION) DIODE CLIPPER

During the positive half cycle, the diode D 1 is forward biased, while diode D2 is reverse
biased. Therefore the diode D1 will conduct and will acts as a short circuit. On the other hand,
diode D2 will acts as an open circuit. However, the value of output voltage cannot exceed the
voltage level of VB1.

During the negative input half cycle the diode D 2 acts as a short circuit while the diode D 1 as
an open circuit. However the value of output voltage cannot exceed the voltage level of V B2.

The clipping levels of the circuit can be varied by changing the values of V B1 and VB2. If the
values of VB1 and VB2 are equal, the circuit will clip both the positive and negative half cycles at
the same voltage level. Such a circuit is known as a symmetrical clipper 35
 Diode As Clipper
DIODE CLIPPER - SUMMARY

36
 Diode As Clamper
 Clampers are electronics circuit that clamps
or shifts an entire signal voltage by a DC
level.

 A clamper shifts the waveform to a desired

DC level without changing the actual
appearance of the applied signal.

 A simple clamper circuit consists of a

capacitor, a diode, a resistor.
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 Diode As Clamper
Negative Clamper Circuit

p p

 During the positive half cycle, the capacitor gets charged to its peak value Vp.

 The diode is forward biased and conducts.

 During the negative half cycle, the diode gets reverse biased and gets open
circuited. The output of the circuit at this moment will be Vo  Vi  Vp

38
 Negative Clamper
Circuit Operation
Assumption:
= RC is a lot bigger than 1 period (T)

We want capacitor to take longer time

to discharge so that capacitor will
maintain its charge and acts as a
battery.

During positive half cycle input:

C1 C1
+ - + -
+ +
V D1 V
RL Vo V Vo
RL
- -
Diode D1 is forward bias
Capacitor C1 is charging Diode D1 act as closed switch.
Vo = 0V

During negative half cycle input:

C1
C1 + - +
+ - +
V
V V Vo
V D1 RL
RL Vo
-
-
Diode D1 act as an open switch.
Diode D1 is reverse bias KVL : -V - V - Vo = 0 39
Vo = -2V
 Positive Clamper
Positive Clamper Circuit

p p

 Initially when the input is given, the capacitor is not yet charged and the diode
is reverse biased. The output is not considered at this point of time.

 During the negative half cycle, at the peak value, the capacitor gets charged
with negative on one plate and positive on the other. The capacitor is now
charged to its peak value Vp. The diode is forward biased and conducts
heavily.

 During the next positive half cycle, the capacitor is charged to positive Vp
while the diode gets reverse biased and gets open circuited. The output of the
circuit at this moment will be Vo  Vi  Vp 40
 Zener Diode
•Zener diodes are semiconductor diodes which have been manufactured to have
their reverse breakdown voltage (“Zener voltage”).
•Zener diode is designed such that it can be operated continuously in that
breakdown mode.
•Commonly available Zener diodes are available with breakdown voltages (“Zener
voltages”) anywhere from 1.8 to 200 V.

41
 Zener Diode
Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

42
 Zener Diode
Regulator Circuit Using Zener Diode
• Zener diode operates as a voltage regulator : the output of the circuit is
constant although there is changes in the load.
• The basic function of zener diode is to maintain a specific voltage across its
terminals within given limits of line or load change.

• The Zener diode is connected in its “reverse bias”

or reverse breakdown mode.
• The supply voltage VS must be greater than VZ.
• Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum
current flowing in the circuit.
• The voltage across the diode remains constant
even with large changes in current as long as the
zener diodes current remains between the
breakdown current IZ(min) and the maximum current
rating IZ(max).

43
 Other Type of Diodes
• There are many different types of diodes that are
available for use in electronics design.
• Different semiconductor diode types can be used to
perform different functions as a result of the
properties of these different diode types.
• Other type of diodes are:
i. Light emitting diode (LED)
ii. Photodiode
iii. Laser diode

44
Light Emitting Diode (LED)

Physical Appearance

Schematic Symbol

Light is produced when LED is forward biased with

current flowing through the junction.
45
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
LED: How It Works

Forward biasing the PN junction would inject the majority

carrier across the junction whereby it will recombine with
the majority carrier at the other side of the junction to
produce visible light.
46
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
LED: How It Works

• When current flows

across a diode,

• Negative electrons move one way and

positive holes move the other way

47
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
LED: How It Works
• The holes exist at a
lower energy level than
the free electrons,

• Therefore when a free electron

recombine with hole, it losses energy.

48
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
LED: How It Works
• This energy is emitted
in a form of a photon,
which causes light.

• The color of the light is determined by

the materials that allow direct
recombination, such as combination of
gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus
(known as gallium arsenide phosphide)
49
 Applications of LED

Motorcycles and cars.

Traffic light signals

Bulb in the homes and industries. LED TV

50
 Photodiode

Schematic Symbol Physical Appearance

Photo means light and diode means a device

consisting of two electrodes. A photo diode is a light
sensitive electronic device capable of converting light
into a voltage or current signal.

51
 Photodiode

A photo diode is always operated in reverse bias mode, thus creating a wide
depletion region. (Remember, electrons and holes have recombined at the PN
junction, thus creating the depletion region).

External photons—that is light—strikes the semiconductor and separates the

electrons and holes. The flow of these free charge carriers produces current.
52
 Photodiode
Photodiode works on the principle of photo generation:
When a PN junction is illuminated with light, it ionizes covalent bonds and new
hole, electron pairs are generated and produced the output current called
photocurrent (Ip). As optical power increases the photo current also increases
linearly.

Applications of photo diodes:

Photo diodes are used as:
i. Photo detectors.
ii. Optocoupler - an electronic component which is used in coupling optically
the two isolated circuits by using light.
iii. Photo sensors in cameras.

53
 Applications of Photodiode

Optical communication system

Automotive devices
Televisions and remote controls 54
 Laser Diode
LASER means Light Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
Schematic symbol of laser diode

Laser diode is also named as diode laser or injection diode.

 It is a semiconductor appliance that generates coherent radiation (where

waves are at similar phase & frequency) in the infrared (IR) or visible spectrum
when current is passed via laser diode.

 Laser diodes are used in CD (compact disc) players, remote control devices,
intrusion detection systems, optical fibre systems and laser printers.
55
 Laser Diode
How Does a Laser Diode Work?
When a p-n junction is forward biased by an
external voltage source, the electrons move
through the junction and recombines as in an
ordinary diode.
When electrons recombine with holes, photons
are released. These photons strikes atoms,
causing more photon to be released.
As the forward bias current is increased, more
electrons enter the depletion region and cause
more photon to be emitted.
Eventually some of the photons that are randomly
drifting within the depletion region strike the
reflected surface perpendicularly, so that they are
reflected back along their original path.
The reflected photons are then again reflected back
from the other end of the junction. This movement
of photons from one end to the another end
continues for many times.
During this movement of photons strike more
atoms and release additional photons due to
avalanche effect.
This process of reflection and generation of
increasing number of photons results a very intense
beam of laser light. 56
 Laser Diode
Characteristics of Laser Diode 

The graphical representation compares the

output power versus the input current. Even
though, the laser diode emits the light below the
threshold energy, the spontaneous emission is
weaker than that of the emission of laser light
above the threshold.
57
 Applications of Laser Diode
Industrial Application

Medical

Dental medication

Telecommunication
58
 Conclusion
1. A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that
conducts electric current in only one direction.
2. The three basic types of rectifier circuits are: Half- Wave
Rectifier , Full -Wave Rectifier and Bridge Rectifier.
3. Clipper circuits have the ability to ‘clip off’ a portion of the
input signal without distorting the remaining part of the
alternating waveform while clampers are electronics circuit
that clamps or shifts an entire signal voltage by a DC level.
4. Zener diodes are semiconductor diodes that operate when it
is reverse biased.
5. Light emitting diode (LED), Photodiode and Laser diode are
diodes are optical diodes.
59
 EXERCISE QUESTIONS
1
1

60
61