Microprocessor AEE Part1

Digital Design 2
Microprocessors
Instructor: Nguyen Hoang Dung, PhD

© DHBK 2005 2/Chapter1
Your instructor
• Name: Nguyen Hoang Dung
• Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering
 Office: C9-401
 Email: nhdungset@gmail.com
• Research:
 Ultra high speed video camera, Embedded system, Digital design by using FPGA
• Education:
 Course 40, Electronics and Telecommunications, HUT (1997)
 Master in Electronics and Telecommunications (2002),

 Master thesis: Research on the techniques for Voice transmission over Internet
Protocols (VOIP).
 Doctor in Electronics in KinKi Univ. Osaka, Japan in 2011
 Doctor thesis: Evaluation of 16-Mfps 165-Kpixel high sensitivity CCD image
sensor and its applications
Course contents
1. Introduction to microprocessor systems
2. The Intel 8088/8086 microprocessors
3. Assembly programming for 8086
4. Memory and I/O Interfacing
5. Interrupt
6. Direct memory access (DMA)
7. Real life microprocessors
References
• Slides
• Textbook: Barry B. Brey, The Intel Microprocessors:
8086/8088, 80186/80188, 80286, 80386, 80486, Pentium and
Pentium Pro Processor: Architecture, Programming, and
Interfacing, Fourth Edition, Prentice Hall, 1997.
• Acknowledgement: Special thanks to Professor Rudy
Lauwereins for sharing his slides.
Course objective
• After completing this course, students will
 Understand the architecutures and working principles of
microprocessors and microprocessor systems.
 Be able to program microprocessors using assembly
 Be able to select the appropriate microprocessor for a specific
application.
 Understand different microprocessors in real life.
 Be able to design a micro-controller based system.
Course evaluation
• Design project (30%)
 Design a AVR microcontroller based system.
 This project is compulsory
• Midterm exam and homework (30%)
 Homework must be completed and handed in on time. Late
submission will result grade 0 for that homework.
 1 midterm exam
• Final exam (40%)
Chapter 1
Introduction to microprocessor systems
1.1 Computer history
1.2 Microprocessor classification
1.3 Number systems (re-visited)
1.4 Structrure and working principle of microprocessor
systems
Chapter 1
 Generation -1: The early days (…-1642)
 Generation 0: Mechanical (1642-1945)
 Generation 1: Vacuum tubes (1945-1955)
 Generation 2: Discrete transistors (1955-1965)
 Generation 3: Integrated circuits (1965-1980)
 Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)
systems
Chapter 1
systems
10/Chapter1
Generation -1: The early days

© DHBK 2005
(…-1642)
• Early counting tables, named abaci, not only formalized this
counting method but also introduced the concept of
positional notation that we use today.
11/Chapter1

© DHBK 2005
(…-1642)
• In the twelfth century
Muhammad ibn Musa
Al'Khowarizmi developed
the concept of a written
process to be followed to
achieve some goal, and
published this in a book:
hence the word algorithm
12/Chapter1

© DHBK 2005
(…-1642)
• Codex Madrid - Leonardo Da Vinci (1500)
 Drawing of a mechanical calculator...
Chapter 1
systems
Generation 0: Mechanical
(1642-1945)
• Blaise Pascal, son of a tax collector, created in 1642 an
adding machine with automatic carries from one position to
the next
• Addition was achieved by the underlying gears turning as
each digit was dialed in, the cumulative total being displayed
in a window above the "keyboard”: hardwired algorithm
15/Chapter1
© DHBK 2005
(1642-1945)
• Charles Babbage
recognized in 1822 that
most navigation tables
contained lots of errors
leading to the loss of
ships.
• He applies to the British
Government for
assistance, and receives
the first government grant
for computer research
16/Chapter1
© DHBK 2005
(1642-1945)
17/Chapter1
© DHBK 2005
(1642-1945)
• Babbage designs the Difference Engine for computing the
entries in navigation tables: an application specific hard-coded
machine
18/Chapter1
© DHBK 2005
(1642-1945)
• Ada Augusta King, Countess
of Lovelace, becomes the
first programmer in 1842, by
writing a program for the
Analytical Engine,
Babbage’s second and this
time programmable device
19/Chapter1
© DHBK 2005
(1642-1945)
• The increasing population in the US, and the demands of
Congress to ask more questions in each census, was making
the processing of the data a longer and longer process.
• It was anticipated that the 1890 census data would not be
processed before the 1900 census was due unless something
was done to improve the processing methodology.
• Herman Hollerith won the competition for the delivery of data
processing equipment to assist in the processing of the data
from the 1890 US Census
• The company he founded, Hollerith Tabulating Company,
eventually became one of the three that composed the
Calculating-Tabulating-Recording (C-T-R) company in 1914,
and eventually was renamed IBM in 1924.
20/Chapter1
© DHBK 2005
(1642-1945)
21/Chapter1
© DHBK 2005
(1642-1945)
• Joseph-Marie Jacquard invented in 1801 an automatic loom
using punched cards for the control of the patterns in the
fabrics
• Algorithm in software on punched cards: general purpose
machine
22/Chapter1
© DHBK 2005
(1642-1945)
• Konrad Zuse, in Berlin, Germany, developed in 1935 his Z-1
computer in his parent's living room, a relay computer, using
binary arithmetic.
• Instruction cycle time: 6 seconds (0.17 Hz)
23/Chapter1
© DHBK 2005
(1642-1945)
• The first large scale, automatic, general purpose,
electromechanical calculator was the Harvard Mark I (AKA
IBM Automatic Sequence Control Calculator [ASCC])
conceived by Howard Aiken in the late 1930’s
• The ASCC was not a stored program machine but instead was
driven by a paper tape containing the instructions.
24/Chapter1
© DHBK 2005
(1642-1945)
• Grace Murray Hopper found the first computer bug beaten to
death in the jaws of a relay. She glued it into the logbook of
the computer and thereafter when the machine stops
(frequently) she told Howard Aiken that they are "debugging"
the computer.
Numbered pages
for USA patents
Lab book!!
Chapter 1
systems
26/Chapter1
Generation 1: Vacuum tubes

© DHBK 2005
(1945-1955)
• Work on ENIAC was
started in 1943 by
John Mauchly (left)
and J. Presper
Eckert
• 18000 vacuum tubes, 1500 relays, 30 ton, 140 kW, 20 registers of 10

decimal digits
• “In the future computers will weigh at most 1.5 ton” (Popular
Mechanics, 1949)
• Programmed via 6000 multi-choice switches and tons of wires


• In 1946, John von Neumann invented the stored program
machine: the program was not anymore stored in switches
and wires or on punched paper, but in program memory
• He designed a computer architecture consisting of a
controller, an ALU with accumulator and a program/data
memory, and was the first to use binary arithmetic instead of
decimal arithmetic
• Today’s computers still have this von Neumann architecture
• He lay the foundation for the “von Neumann bottleneck”, i.e.
the bottleneck between the memory and the rest of the
computer; all newer designs have been focussing on
removing this bottleneck

• In 1948, the first stored program machine was operational at
the University of Manchester: the Manchester Mark I

• In 1951, the Whirlwind computer was the first to employ
magnetic core memories, a principle that is popping up
recently again (MRAM), but then in integrated form

• A magnetic core, storing 256 bits

• John von Neumann in 1952 with his new machine

• In 1954, John Backus of IBM developed of a programming
language allows users to express their problems in commonly
understood mathematical formulae: FORTRAN
• The first FORTRAN compiler consisted of 2000 punched cards
(2000 lines of - undocumented -code)
• Still most scientific programs are written in FORTRAN
Chapter 1
systems
36/Chapter1
Generation 2: Discrete transistors

© DHBK 2005
(1955-1965)
• William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain invent
in 1947 the "transfer resistance" device, later to be known as
the transistor
37/Chapter1
Generation 2: Discrete transistors

© DHBK 2005
(1955-1965)
• In 1955, IBM unveiled its IBM704, a mainframe computer using
discrete transistors, connected to several dumb terminals
• The idea of central computer centers with distributed data input
and output was born
• First machine with floating point logic (5 kFlops, clock: 300 kHz)
Chapter 1
systems
39/Chapter1
Generation 3: Integrated circuits

© DHBK 2005
(1965-1980)
• In 1958, Jack St. Clair Kilby of Texas Instruments (Nobel
prize physics, 2000) conceived and proved his idea of
integrating one transistor with resistors and capacitors on a
single semiconductor chip (size: half paper clip), which is a
monolithic IC: a phase shift oscillator.
40/Chapter1

© DHBK 2005
(1965-1980)
• The world of computing changed radically on April 7, 1964
when IBM announced System/360, the first IBM family of
compatible machines.
41/Chapter1

© DHBK 2005
(1965-1980)
• While some companies were
developing bigger and faster
machines, Digital Equipment
Corporation introduced the
PDP-8 in 1965, the first TRUE
minicomputer.
• The PDP-8 had a minuscule
instruction set and a
primitive micro-language,
and excellent interface
capability. Thus the PDP-8
became used extensively as
a process control system
Chapter 1
systems
Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)

• In 1971, Ted Hoff produced the Intel 4004 in response to the
request from a Japanese company (Busicom) to create a chip
for a calculator. It is the first microprocessor, i.e. the first
processor-on-a-chip (2400 TOR)

• Developers Edward Roberts, William Yates and Jim Bybee spent 1973-1974
to develop the MITS Altair 8800, the first personal computer.
• Priced $375, it contained 256 bytes of memory, but had no keyboard, no
display, and no auxiliary storage device.
• Later, Bill Gates and Paul Allen wrote their first product for the Altair -- a
BASIC compiler
• IBM entered the field in 1981 with the IBM "PC"

and supported by the DOS operating system
developed under an agreement that gave Microsoft
all the profits in exchange for the development
costs having been borne by Microsoft.

• In 1984, Xerox PARC (Palo Alto Research Center) presented
the Alto, a desktop workstation with a novel user interface:
windows, icons, mouse
First mouse

• In 1986, the Cray-XMP supercomputer with 4 processors
reached a peak performance of 840 MFlops. It was water-
cooled.

• The same performance has been reached in a PC by a single
chip, the Pentium III, in Q1 2000
Source: Intel
Source: Intel
Source Intel
Moore’s law: number of transistors doubles every 18 months

(Gordon Moore, founder Intel Corp.)
Chapter 1
1.1 History of computers
systems

• BMW > 100 processors

• A US citizen has on averagee ~ 75 processors
*Intelligent Transportation *Cabin Air

System (ITS)
Quality
*Lighting
*Safety Systems
*Engine
Performance and
Emission Control
(Traction Control)
*Suspension *Digital Car

*Steering Controls*Entertainment
and
Braking Control
*Gear Box Radio

Classification according to cost:
Type Giá (USD) Example application

Disposable system 1 Greeting cards
Embedded system 10 Watches, cars,
appliances
Game computer 100 Home video games
Personal computer 1K Desktop computer
Server 10K Network server
Collection of 100K Departmental
workstations supercomputer
Mainframe 1M Batch processing in
bank
Supercomputer 10M Weather forecasting

• Classification according to purpose:
 General Purpose Microprocessor
 DSP (Digital Signal Processor)
 Microcontroller
 ASIP (Application Specific Integrated Processor)

• Classification according to instruction set:
 CISC (complex Instruction Set computer):
 Many instructions
 Complex hardware
 Instructions have different lengths and can be executed in many clock cycles.
 E.g: Intel x86, AMD
 RISC (reduced instruction Set computer):
 Few instructions
 Each instruction has a fixed length and is executed in one or two clock cycle.
 Simple hardware, many registeres
 Higher clock frequency and low power consumption
 E.g. ARM, PowerPC

Von Neumann vs. Harvard
Chapter 1
 Decimal, Binary, Octal, Hexadecimal
 Addition, subtraction, multiplication, division
 Negative numbers
 Integer, fixed point, fractional, floating point, BCD, ASCII
systems
Decimal
• 1234.56710=
 1•1000+2•100+3•10+4•1+5•0.1+6•0.01+7•0.001
 1•103+2•102+3•101+4•100+5•10-1+6•10-2+7•10-3
 r = radix (r = 10), d=digit (0  d  9), m = #digits before
radix point (decimal point), n = #digits after decimal point
m 1
D d
i n
i r i
1/61
Binary
• 1011.0112=
 1•8+0•4+1•2+1•1+0•0.5+1•0.25+1•0.125
 1•23+0•22+1•21+1•20+0•2-1+1•2-2+1•2-3
 r = radix (r = 2), d = digit (0  d  1), m = #digits before
radix point (binary point), n = #digits after radix point
m 1
B d
i n
i 2 i
1/62
Octal
• 7654.328=
 7•512+6•64+5•8+4•1+3•0.125+2•0.015625
 7•83+6•82+5•81+4•80+3•8-1+2•8-2
 r = radix (r = 8), d = digit (0  d  7), m = #digits before
radix point (octal point), n = #digits after radix point
m 1
O d
i n
i 8 i
1/63
Hexadecimal
• FEDC.7616=
 15•4096+14•256+13•16+12•1+7•1/16+6•1/256
 15•163+14•162+13•161+12•160+7•16-1+6•16-2
 r = radix (r = 16), d = digit (0  d  F), m = #digits before
radix point (hexadecimal point), n = #digits after radix
point
m 1
H d
i  n
i  16 i
1/64
Binary addition
• Decimal addition
carry 010
x 8273
y 562
sum 8835
• Binary addition
carry 0011111
x 10011011
y 1010111
sum 11110010
1/65
Binary multiplication
1110
1101
1110
0000
1110
1110
10110110
• Multiplication by repeated add & shift: number of

cycles = number of bits of multiplier
• Can be implemented in a faster way
1/66
Binary division
10111010 1110
1110
1101
1001010
1110
10010
0000
10010
1110
100
• Division by repeated subtract & shift: number of

cycles = number of bits of result
• Mostly done this way
1/67
Sign-Magnitude representation
• Each number consists of two parts : sign and
magnitude
• Decimal example: +12310 (by convention also ‘123’)
and -12310
• Binary: sign represented by MSB; ‘0’ = positive, ‘1’ =
negative
• Binary example: 011002 = +1210 en 101002 = -1210
• A sign-magnitude integer with n bits lies between -
(2n-1-1) and +(2n-1-1) with two representations for 0:
000...0 en 100...0
• Generic representation of a sign-magnitude
integer: B = <s,m>
1/68
69/Chapter1
Sign-Magnitude addition and

© DHBK 2005
subtraction
Start Start
subtraction addition
s2=s’2
no s1=s2 yes
no yes
m1>m2
no m1<m2 yes
mr=0 mr=m2-m1 mr=m1-m2 mr=m1+m2

sr=0 sr=s2 sr=s1 sr=s1
End
1/69
70/Chapter1
Sign-Magnitude addition and

© DHBK 2005
subtraction
• Multiplication and division are repeated
add/subtract & shift and can hence be carried out
with such an adder/subtractor
• Sign-magnitude representation leads to slow,
expensive adder/subtractor due to repeated
comparison and test of sign and magnitude
• This is why we represent numbers mostly using
two’s complement notation
1/70
Two’s complement notation

• Radix-complement of a number D with m digits is
D* = rm - D
• eg. The 10-complement of 12310 is
103 - 12310 = 87710
24 - 1310 = 310 = 00112
• Call D’ the digit complement, then D*=D’+1 (proof in
book); this offers us an easier way of determining
the two’s complement:
00102 + 00012 = 00112
1/71

• How do we negate a number D, i.o.w. how do we
obtain -D?
• D* = rm - D  D* + D = rm = 0 when we retain only
the m least significant digits 
D* = -D
• eg. D=00112  D*=11002+00012=11012
D+D*=00112+11012=100002=24=0 when we retain
only the m least significant bits; we may hence use
D*=11012 for the binary representation of -D=-310
• What is the negation of D=00002?
D*=11112+00012=100002=00002
There is only 1 notation for ‘zero’
• A 2-complement integer with n bits lies between -
(2n-1) and +(2n-1-1)
1/72

Decimal 2-complement Sign-magnitude
-8 1000 -
-7 1001 1111
-6 1010 1110
-5 1011 1101
-4 1100 1100
-3 1101 1011
-2 1110 1010
-1 1111 1001
0 0000 1000 & 0000
1 0001 0001
2 0010 0010
3 0011 0011
4 0100 0100
5 0101 0101
6 0110 0110
7 0111 0111
Negating a 2-complement number requires many more

bit-flips than negating a sign-magnitude number:
1/73 sign-magnitude is less power hungry than 2-complement
74/Chapter1
Two’s complement addition and

© DHBK 2005
subtraction
Start Start
subtraction addition
B2=B’2+1
Br=B1+B2
End
• The negation needed for the subtraction is done by taking the

bit-complement of B2; the addition of the ‘1’ is done by putting
the LSB carry-in of the next addition to 1.
1/74
75/Chapter1
Two’s complement addition and

© DHBK 2005
subtraction
Addition
0010 +2 0010 +2 1110 - 2

0100 +4 1100 - 4 1100 - 4
+ 00000 + 00000 + 11000
0110 +6 1110 - 2 1010 - 6
Subtraction
0010 +2 0010 +2 1110 - 2

1011 (+4)’ 0011 (- 4)’ 0011 (- 4)’
+ 00111 + 00111 + 11111
1110 - 2 0110 +6 0010 +2
Overflow
0111 +7 1001 - 7
0110 +6 1010 - 6
+ 01100 + 10000
1101 - 3 0011 +3
1/75
Little endian and big endian

• How is 1234 H stored in 8 bit memory?
FFFFH FFFFH
..... .....
0101H 12H 0101H 34H

0100H 34H 0100H 12H
..... .....
0000H 0000H
little edian big edian

Intel microprocessors Motorola microprocessors
Floating point number

• Example: 1,234=1,234*100=0,1234*101=...
• 11,01 B= 1,101*21=0,1101*22=...
mantissa exponent
• Real number: (m, e) , e.g. (0.1101, 2)

 Single precision: 32 bit
 Double precision: 64 bit

• IEEE-754 format for single-precision
31 30 23 22 0
S biased exponent e fraction f of normalized mantissa
1 sign bit: 0 positive, 1 negative

8 bit biased exponent= exponent + 127
24 bit normalized mantissa = 1 hidden bit + 23 bit fraction
Normalized Mantissa lies between 1 and 2 : 1.f
Example: Represent 0.1011 in IEEE-754 format
Sign bit s=0

Normalize mantissa: 0.1011=1.011*2-1
Biased exponent: -1 + 127=126=01111110
IEEE format: 0 01111110 0110000000000000000000

• IEEE-754 format for double-precision
63 62 52 51 0
S biased exponent e fraction f of normalized mantissa
1 sign bit: 0 positive, 1 negative

11 bit biased exponent= exponent + 1023
53 bit normalized mantissa = 1 hidden + 52 bit fraction
single precision: (-1)s x 2e-127 x (1.f)2
double precision: (-1)s x 2e-1023 x (1.f)2

BCD
• Binary Coded Decimal number
Decimal BCD
digit
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
1/80
81/Chapter1
ASCII
© DHBK 2005
• American Standard Code for Information Interchange (7-bit

code)
b3b2b1b0 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

0000 NUL DLE SP 0 @ P ‘ p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 “ 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EOT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f V
0111 BEL ETB ‘ 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1/81 1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL
Chapter 1
1.1 History of computers
systems
1.4.1 Microprocessor system
Data bus
Control Bus
I/O I/O
Memory CPU
Interface devices
Monitor
Address Bus
Printers
Mouse
DRAM Intel 80X86 ISA Keyboard
SRAM Motorola 680X EISA Harddisk
ROM PowerPC PCI CD-ROM
EEPROM ... VESA DVD
Flash SCSI ...
USB
...
1.4.1 Microprocessor system

• CPU (Central Processing Unit)
 Arithmetic Logical Unit
Perform arithmetic operations Instruction Fetch
 Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division
Perform arithmetic operations Instruction Decode
 And, or, compare..
 Control Unit
Instruction Execution
 Registers
Store data, address and instruction during the execution of the
instructions.
1.4.2 Memory, BUS

• Memory
 ROM: non volatile, store data and instruction which control the
starting up of the system
 RAM: volatile, store main data and instruction of the system.
• Data bus
 8, 16, 32, 64 bit
• Address bus
 16, 20, 24, 32, 36 bit
 Addressable memory cells: 2N
 E.g. 8088/8086 has 20 address bits => manageable memroy size:
220 bytes=1Mbytes
1.4.2 Memory, BUS

Manufacturer Microprocessor name Data bus Address bus Addressable
width width memory size
Intel 8088 8 20 1M
8086 16 20 1M
80186 16 20 1M
80286 16 24 16 M
80386SX 16 24 16 M
80386DX 32 32 4G
80486DX 32 32 4G
Pentium 64 32 4G
Pentium Pro 64 36 64 G
Pentium I, II, III, IV 64 36 64 G
Motorola 68000 16 24 16 M
68010 16 24 16 M
68020 32 32 4G
68030 32 32 4G
68040 32 32 4G
68060 64 32 4G
PowerPC 64 32 4G

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Digital Design 2

Instructor: Nguyen Hoang Dung, PhD

• Name: Nguyen Hoang Dung

• Department of Electronics and Computer Engineering

 Master in Electronics and Telecommunications (2002),

Generation -1: The early days

Generation -1: The early days

Generation -1: The early days

Generation 1: Vacuum tubes

Generation 1: Vacuum tubes

• 18000 vacuum tubes, 1500 relays, 30 ton, 140 kW, 20 registers of 10

Generation 1: Vacuum tubes

• Programmed via 6000 multi-choice switches and tons of wires

Generation 1: Vacuum tubes

Generation 1: Vacuum tubes

Generation 1: Vacuum tubes

Generation 1: Vacuum tubes

Generation 1: Vacuum tubes

Generation 1: Vacuum tubes

Generation 2: Discrete transistors

Generation 2: Discrete transistors

Generation 3: Integrated circuits

Generation 3: Integrated circuits

Generation 3: Integrated circuits

Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)

Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)

Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)

• IBM entered the field in 1981 with the IBM "PC"

Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)

Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)

Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)

Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)

Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)

Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)

Generation 4: VLSI (1980-?)

Moore’s law: number of transistors doubles every 18 months

1.2 Microprocessor classification

1.2 Microprocessor classification

• BMW > 100 processors

*Intelligent Transportation *Cabin Air

*Suspension *Digital Car

1.2 Microprocessor classification

Type Giá (USD) Example application

1.2 Microprocessor classification

1.2 Microprocessor classification

1.2 Microprocessor classification

• Multiplication by repeated add & shift: number of

• Division by repeated subtract & shift: number of

Sign-Magnitude addition and

mr=0 mr=m2-m1 mr=m1-m2 mr=m1+m2

Sign-Magnitude addition and

Two’s complement notation

Two’s complement notation

Two’s complement notation

Negating a 2-complement number requires many more

Two’s complement addition and

• The negation needed for the subtraction is done by taking the

Two’s complement addition and

0010 +2 0010 +2 1110 - 2

0010 +2 0010 +2 1110 - 2

Little endian and big endian

0101H 12H 0101H 34H

little edian big edian

Floating point number

Intelligent Transportation Cabin Air

Suspension Digital Car