By

Engr. Ghulam Hussain

Lecturer
Civil Engineering Department
The University Of Lahore
 Single runway
 Parallel runways 
 Open-V runways 
 Intersecting runways
 There are several important aircraft operational
characteristics to know about the aircraft mass.
 Aircraft mass expenditures are significant and thus
need to be accounted for in the air vehicle runway
length analysis.
 OEW = operating empty weight (or mass) is the
weight (or mass) of the aircraft without fuel and
payload (just the pilots and empty seats)
 MTOW = maximum takeoff operating weight (or mass)
- structurally the maximum demonstrated mass at
takeoff for safe flight
(excludes run-up fuel and includes OEW, fuel &
Payload). Longer trips requires more fuel with less
payload
 MALW = maximum allowable landing weight (or
mass) is the maximum demonstrated landing weight
(or mass) to keep the landing gear intact at
maximum sink rate (vertical speed)
 MSPW = maximum structural payload weight (or
mass) is the maximum demonstrated payload to be
carried without stressing the aircraft fuselage
 MZFW = maximum zero fuel weight (or mass) is the
sum of the OEW and the MSPW
 MTW = maximum taxi weight (or mass) of the
maximum demonstrated weight (or mass) for
ground maneuvering. Usually slightly more than
MTOW (includes run-up fuel).
 DTW = desired takeoff weight (or mass) is
the weight of the aircraft considering fuel
(includes reserve), payload and OEW to
complete a given stage length (trip distance)
DTW = PYL + OEW + FW (trip fuel +

reserve)
 where:
 PYL is the payload carried (passengers and cargo)
 OEW is the operating empty weight
 FW is the fuel weight to be carried (usually includes
reserve fuel)
 Selecting the length of runway is perhaps the
important decision which must be made in
the planning of landing area.
 Length of runway mainly depends on
 The type of aircraft
 Its payload
 Trip length (fuel weight)
 Altitude and temperature at the airport
 Safety regulations
 It is the length of runway under the following
assumed condition at the airport:
 Airport altitude at sea level
 Temperature at airport is standard (15 0 c)
 Runway is leveled in the longitudinal direction
 No wind is blowing on runway
 Runway surface is dry
 Aircraft is loaded at its full loading capacity
 Corrections to basic runway length
Aircraft Type Takeoff (ft.) Landing (ft.)
B747-200B 10,500 6,150

DC-10-30 10,490 5,960

Concorde 10,280 8,000

B727-200 10,080 4,800
A300 B4 8,740 5,590

B737-200 6,550 4,290

DC-9-50 7,880 4,680

F28-2000 5,490 3,540

F27-500 5,470 3,290

SD3-30 3,900 3,400
 FS = full strength pavement distance
 CL = clearway distance
 SW = stop way distance
 FL = field length (FS+SW+CL)
 LOD = lift off distance
 TOR = takeoff run
 TOD = takeoff distance
 LD = landing distance
 SD = stopping distance
 D35 = distance to clear an 11 m (35 ft.)
obstacle
 DAS = distance to accelerate and stop (ASD)
 Runway in future discussion refers to full
strength pavement (FS) - Support the full
weight of the aircraft
 For turbine aircraft the regulation do not
requires FS for the entire Take-off Distance
(TOD), while for piston aircraft requires FS
for entire TOD
 Runway Field Length (FL) have three basic
components
 Fullstrength pavement (FS)
 Clearways (CL)
 Stopways (SW)
 Clearway (CL)
 Rectangular area beyond the runway not less
than 500 ft. wide and not longer than 1000 ft.
 Extends from end of runway with a slope not
exceeding 1.25 percent above which no object
protrude except for the threshold lights on two
sides of the runway (not higher than 26 inches)
 Allowing aircraft to climb safely to clear an
imaginary 11 m (35 ft. obstacle)
 Stopway (SW)
 Area beyond runway, width not less than runway
 Paved surface that allows aircraft to stop in
situation of abandoned takeoff (engine failure in
turbine powered is not very common)
 Permit use of lesser strength pavement for
turbine powered, while for piston aircraft
requires FS for entire SW
 The following cases are considered for
determining the basic runway length
 Normal takeoff (all engines working fine)
 Engine-out takeoff condition
 Continued takeoff
 Aborted takeoff

 Landing

 The cases which works out the longest

runway length is finally adopted
 The normal landing case requires that an air
craft should come to a stop within 60% of the
landing distance. The runway of full strength
pavement is provided for the entire landing
distance.
Stop

Runway

60% of landing distance

Landing distance
 The landing distance should be 67% longer
than the demonstrated distance to stop an
aircraft
 The normal take-off case requires a clearway
which is an area beyond the runway and is in
alignment with the centre line of runway.
 The width of clearway is not <150m and is
kept free form obstruction.
 The clearway ground area or any object on it
should not protrude a plane inclined upward
at a slope of 1.25% from the runway.
Normal Takeoff Case

clearway
 Clearway ≤ ½ of this distance

10.5m height

Lift-off distance
115% of Lift-off distance
Distance to 10.5m height
115% of distance to 10.5m height ( take-off distance)

Longitudinal section

Min150m
Runway Clearway

Plan
Normal Take-off Case
 Normal Takeoff Case

CL is min. 500 ft. wide with

a grade less than 1.25 deg.
 Dictated by two scenarios:
 Continued takeoff sub case
 Actual distance to clear an imaginary 11 m (35 ft)
obstacle D35 (with an engine-out)
 Aborted or rejected takeoff sub case
 Distance to accelerate and stop (DAS)
 Engine Out Analysis

* Decision speed is the speed chosen by the aircraft captain in relation to the respective limitations
of the aircraft, the airline operator rules and procedures, runway characteristics and actual
meteorological conditions
 Clearway ≤ ½ of this distance
Engine Decelerated – stop distance 10.5m
Failure height

Stop way
Lift-off distance
Clear way
Accelerated stop distance

Distance to 10.5m height ( take-of distance )

Longitudinal section

Clear way

Min150m
Runway Stop
way

Plan

Engine Failure Case

 Lengths for the critical aircraft:
 Case 1: Normal take-off Case 2: Engine-failure take-off
 Case 3: Eng. -failure aborted take-off Case 4: Landing
 Final analysis
FL  max(TOD1 , TOD2 , DAS3 , LD4 )
FS  max(TOR1 , TOR2 , LD4 )
SW  DAS  max(TOR1 , TOR2 , LD4 ) SWmin  0
CL  min( FL  DAS 4 , CL1,max , CL2,max )
CLmin  0 CLmax  1000 ft .

 If both ends of runway are to be used, the field length

components (FS, SW and CL) must exist in each direction.
 Determine the runway length requirements
for turbine powered aircraft. Following
aircraft performance characteristics are
observed:
 Normal take off:
 Lift off distance = 2100 m
 Distance to 11 m height = 2400 m
 Engine failure:
 Lift of distance = 2460 m
 Distance to 11 m height = 2730 m
 Engine failure aborted take off:
 Accelerate stop distance = 2850 m
 Normal landing:
 Stop distance = 1500 m
 For normal take off:
 TOD1 = 1.15 (D351) = 1.15 X 2400 = 2760 m
 CL1 = 0.5[TOD1-1.15 (LOD1)] = 0.5[2760-1.15 X
2100]=172.5 m
 TOR1 = TOD1 – CL1 = 2760 – 172.5 = 2587.5 m
 For engine failure:
 TOD2 = D35.2 = 2730 m
 CL2 = 0.5[TOD2 – LOD2] = 0.5[2730 - 2460] = 135 m
 TOR2 = TOD2 – CL2 = 2730 – 135 = 2595 m
 For engine failure aborted take off:
 DAS = 2850 m
 For normal landing:
 LD = 1500/0.667 = 2248 m
 FL4 = FS4 = LD = 2248 m
 The actual runway components are:
 FL = max (TOD1,TOD2, DAS, LD)
= max (2760, 2730, 2850, 2500)
= 2850 m
 FS = max (TOR1, TOR2, LD)
= max (2587.5, 2595, 2248)
= 2595 m
 SW = DAS – max (TOR1, TOR2, LD)
= 2850 - max (2587.5, 2595, 2248)
= 2850 – 2595
= 255 m
 CL = min [(FL – DAS), CL1, CL2)
= min [(2850 – 2850), 172.5, 135)
= min (0, 172.5, 135) = 0
 Declared distances are the distances which
the airport owner declares are available and
suitable for:
 Take-off run available (TORA)
 Take-off distance available (TODA)
 Accelerate stop distance available (ASDA)
 Landing distance available (LDA)
 The basic runway length is for mean sea level
Elevation having standard atmospheric
conditions.
 For any change in elevation, temperature
and gradient for actual site of construction,
necessary corrections are to be applied to
obtain the length of runway.
 The air density reduces as the elevation increases,
this in turn reduces the lift on the wings of the
aircraft and the aircraft requires greater ground
speed before aircraft becomes airborne. To achieve
greater speed, longer length of runway is required.
 Higher altitude requires longer runway length
 ICAO recommends that basic runway length should
be increased at the rate of 7% per 300m rise in
elevation above MSL.
 Increase the required runway length at a rate of
7% for each 300m (1000ft.) airport elevation
above MSL
 Elevation factor, Fe = 0.07*E + 1
 Where, E is airport elevation above MSL in units
of 300m (1000ft.)
 Higher temperature requires longer runway
 Higher temperatures results in lower air
density, resulting in lower output of thrust
 Increase is not linear with temperature, rate
of increase higher at higher temperatures
 Standard temperature is 59oF (15oC) at sea
level (MSL)
 Increase in length is 0.42% to 0.65% per
degree Fahrenheit
 The length corrected for elevation is to be further
increased at a rate of 1% for each degree centigrade by
which the airport Reference temperature exceeds the
Standard temperature at the elevation of airport site.

 Reference temperature (T) is defined as:

 T2  T1 
T  T1   
 3 
T1 = Mean of mean Daily Temp. for the hottest month
of the year (Hottest month has the highest mean
daily temperature)
T2 = Mean Maximum Daily Temperature for the same
month
 Standard Temperature at the airport site can be
determined by reducing the standard
temperature at MSL (15oC) at a rate of 6.5oC per
1000 m or 1.981oC per 1000 ft. rise in the airport
elevation above MSL.
 Temperature correction factor Ft , is computed
through following Equations
Ft  0.01T  15  6.5 * E    1 (in meters)
Ft  0.01T  15  1.981* E    1 (in feet)

Where, E = Airport elevation in 1000 m above

MSL
 Uphill gradient requires more runway length
than a down-ward gradient
 Increase and decrease in runway length is
linear with change in gradient
 Length increases by 7-10% for each 1 percent
increase in gradient (max gradient is 1.5%)
 Average uniform gradient: straight line
joining the ends of the runway (no point 5 ft.
above the average)
 Effective gradient: difference in elevation
between the highest and lowest points
divided by length of runway
 The runway length having been corrected for
elevation & temperature be further increased at
a rate of 10% for each 1% of the runway Effective
Gradient (G). The Effective Gradient is the
maximum elevation differential of runway center
line divided by the total length of runway.
RLmax  RLmin
G
L
Fg  0.1* G  1
Where, RLmax and RLmin are the reduced levels of
highest and lowest points along the runway center
line.
 Greater the head wind, shorter is the runway
 The direction of the wind also effects the
allowable take-off weight for the airplane
 A 5-kn headwind approximately reduces the
take-off length by 3 percent
 A 5-kn tailwind approximately increases the
take-off length by 7 percent.
 For planning, no wind is considered if light
wind occurs at the airport sight
 Presence of water or slush (reduce braking
resistance)
 From 0.25 to 0.5 inch, take-off weight must
be substantially reduced to overcome the
retarding force of water and slush
 Velocity at which hydroplaning develops:
 Fortire pressure range = 120 – 200 psi, Vp ranges
from 110 to 140 mph (usual landing and take-off
speed)

V p  10 * (Tire Pressure) 0.5

 Find out the required length for the airport of reference code 4 D,
located at 450 m above mean sea level. The runway effective gradient is
0.5%. The monthly mean maximum and mean daily temperatures of the
hottest month of the year are 27oC and 18oC, respectively.
 Solution:
 Field length = 1800 m
 Correction for elevation = 0.07 *450/300 +1 = 1.105
 Corrected runway length = 1800 * 1.105 = 1989 m
 Standard temperature at the airport site = 15- 6.5*450/1000 = 12.08C
 Airport reference temperature = 18 + (27-18)/3 = 21C
 Rise in temperature = 21 – 12.08 = 8.92C
 Correction for temperature = 0.01 * 8.92 + 1 = 1.0892
 Corrected length for temperature = 1989 * 1.0892 = 2166 m
 Correction for gradient = 0.01 * 0.05 + 1 = 1.05
 Final runway length = 2166 * 1.05 = 2275 m
…??