Course : Principle of Food processing

Effective Period : Maret 2016

Thermal Principles and Kinetics

Session 2
 Outline

• Introduction
• methods of thermal processing
• Microorganisms
• thermal kinetics
• thermal process establishment
• thermal process calculation
• thermal process validation
• process monitoring and control
• emerging processing technologies
 Introduction

• Thermal processing of food materials is one of

the most widely used methods of food
preservation.

• Foods may be thermally processed using

numerous heating systems such as retorts (batch
or continuous), direct heating systems (steam
injection or steam infusion), indirect heating
systems (tubular heat exchangers, shell and tube
heat exchangers, plate heat exchangers, scraped
surface heat exchangers), volumetric heating
systems (microwave or ohmic heating), and
combinations of these.
 THE OBJECTIVES OF
THERMAL PROCESSING

Pasteurization
Pathogenic
Types
(Salmonella, E. Coli, Listeria,
Yersinia etc)

Sterilization
Microbes Spoilage
Types (yeast S.
Destroy Cerevisiae, Lactobacilus,
(Inactivating) Bacillus subtilis etc)

Toxin Producing
Types (C. Botulinum, S.
Aureus etc)

Enzymatic Spoilage

Blanching
Enzymes (Lipase, Polyphenol Oxidase etc)

Remove
Unpleasant Reducing Tannin etc
Flavors, etc
 Testing the Effectivity
of Blanching
(Inactivation of Peroxidase)

• Peroxidase test in vegetables is used to

detect enzyme inactivation.
• This is relatively heat resistant and easily
detected.
• It consists of adding guaiacol solution and
hydrogen peroxide solution and observing
the development of a brown colour
indicating peroxidase activity.
 THERMAL PROCESSING
CALCULATION

To kill Bacteria in Food by heating (at certain

temperature and certain time)
Too High
Loss of Nutrition
Optimalization of Vitamin etc
Temperature-Time
Too Low
Bacterial Survival

Need Thermal Process Calculation

Factors should be considered

• Type of Target Organisme

• Type of Foods (Thermo-physical
properties)
• pH of Foods
• Shape and Size of Container
• etc
 pH consideration

• The extent of thermal treatment

required for a food product
depends on whether it is an acid
product, an acidified product, or a
low-acid product.
• An acid food product is one with a
natural pH of less than 4.6.
 pH of the Food
Examples

High Acid (< 3.7) Apple. Lemon. etc)

Acid (3.7 – 4.6) Tomatoes. etc)

Medium Acid (4.6 – 5.3) Carrots etc

Low Acid (> 5.3) Fish, Meat,

Vegetables etc
 pH 4.6

Acid Foods Low Acid Foods

Safe Not Safe

Higher Risk
 Heat Resistant Bacteria
Clostridium botulinum

• Highly Heat Resistant

• Spore Forming
• Anaerobic
• Produce Botulism Toxin
• Does not grow nor producing
toxin at pH < 4.6

Clostridium botulinum can be destroyed at

temperature of 115 – 125oC
 pH 4.6

Acid Foods Low Acid Foods

Safe Not Safe

Sterilized at
Temperature Sterilized at
Temperature
<100 oC (Boiling
Water) 115 – 125 oC
 pH of the Food

Examples

High Acid (< 3.7) Apple. Lemon. etc)

Acid (3.7 – 4.6) Tomatoes. etc)

Medium Acid (4.6 – 5.3) Carrots etc

Low Acid (> 5.3) Fish, Meat,

Vegetables etc
 There are other
microorganisms which are
more heat resistant than than
C. botulinum

Bacillus thermoacidurans
B. Stearotermophilus
C. thermosaccolyticum

Thermophylic in nature (50 - 55 oC)

Therefore, Not of much concern because the
food products, processed cans are normally
stored at temperature < 300C

Do not store canned food in hot room!

 Thermal Processing
Calculation

• Destroy Bacteria in Food by exposing

the product to a specific
TEMPERATURE for a specific TIME
• A critical step in the design of a safe
thermal process is the process
calculation.
• Sterility is defined as when bacteria
has lost the ability to reproduce

http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ai407e/AI407E22.htm
 Thermal Processing
Calculation

http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/ai407e/AI407E22.htm
 Thermal Processing
Calculation
• Every microorganism has different thermal
resistance
• Thermal resistance also depend on nature of
food (pH, Viscosity, Size, Shape etc)

Important to understand :

• Thermal Death Time

• D-Value
• z-Values
 Thermal Processing
Calculation

• D-Value
• z-Values

Lethal Rate Value

Fo
 Thermal Death Time (TDT)

Time to kill a specific bacteria at a

specific temperature

TDT Curve
 D-value
• D-value is defined as the time at certain
temperature required to reduce a known
number of microorganism by 90% or to
result 1 log cycle

For example, a D value at 72°C of 15 minute means that for each

15 minute of processing at 72°C the bacteria population of the
target microorganism will be reduced by 90%.

D72 = 15 minutes
The D-value decreases as the temperature
increases, since it takes less time to destroy
the microorganisms at the higher temperature.

Effect of Temperature on D-value

Temperature (oC) D-value (Minutes)

90 30

100 3

110 0.3
 z-value

z-value can be determined from the slope of

line that results from plotting the log of D-
values versus Temperature

z-value indicating

the resistance of bacteria to different lethal

temperatures.

It is equal to the number of degrees (F or C)

required to change the D-Value by 1 log cycle
(factor of 10)
change the D-Value by
1 log cycle
For instance,
Z-value = 8, 
either
35 minutes at 102 oC
3.5 minutes at 110 oC, or
0.35 minutes at 118 oC or
105
 Z (°C) D121 (min)

Bacteria 5-10 1-5

Enzymes 30-40 1-5

Vitamins 20-25 150-200

pigments 40-70 15-50

Which one more sensitive to heat.
Bacteria or Enzyme?
 Thermal kinetics

• Destruction of a microbial population

 Thermal kinetics

• Destruction of a microbial population

 C. botulinum

D121 = 0.21 minutes

C. stearothermophilus

D121 = 4 minutes
 D-value at 121.1oC or D121

with smaller D- values indicating lower resistance to certain temperature

C. botulinum

Z-value = 10 oC
C. stearothermophilus

Z-value = 7 oC
 97

with smaller z- values indicating greater sensitivity to increasing heat

A working example of how to use D and Z values in
pasteurization calculations:

Pooled raw milk at the processing plant has bacterial

population of 4x105/mL. It is to be processed at 79°C for 21
seconds.
•The D value at 65°C for the bacterial population is 7 min.
•The Z value is 7°C.

How many organisms will be left after pasteurization? What

time would be required at 65°C to accomplish the same degree
of lethality?
Answer:

At 79°C, the D-value has been reduced by 2 log cycles from that at
65°C

since the Z value is 7°C. temperature difference From 65 oC to 79 oC=

14 oC, Divided by 7 oC = 2 log cycles of D

Hence it is now 0.07 min.

The milk is processed for 21 seconds or 21/60=0.35 min, so that would

accomplish 5 log cycle reductions to 4 organisms/mL.

At 65°C, you would need 35 minutes to accomplish a 5D reduction.

 (0.35 minutes/0.07 minutes = 5)
Answer:

At 79°C, the D value has been reduced by 2 log cycles from that at
65°C

since the Z value is 7°C. temperature difference From 65 oC to 79 oC=

14 oC, Divided by 7 oC = 2 log cycles of D

Hence it is now 0.07 min.

The milk is processed for 21 seconds or 21/60=0.35 min, so that would

accomplish 5 log cycle reductions to 4 organisms/mL. At 65°C, you
would need 35 minutes to accomplish a 5D reduction.
5 log reduction
from 4x105/ml
is 4x10o
 CONCEPT OF STERILITY
Of FOODs

Minimum Thermal Process

(Minimum Public Health)

Application of minimum of temperature and period of

time to ensure the destruction of microorganisms of
public health concern
 Minimum Public Health

Minimum Process to reduce any population of

most heat resistant (C. botulinum) spores by
10-12 or 12 log cycles

Reduce the probability of survival

to 1 in 1.000.000.000.000

Posibly you get 1 dangeruous can from 1.000.000.000.000 cans

 F-value
(Sterilitazion Value)
The F value is the number of minutes required
to kill a known population of microorganisms
in a certain food under specified conditions.

This F value is usually set at 12 D values to give a theoretical 12

log cycle reduction of the most heat-resistant species (C.
botulinum).

For example, if there were 10,000 spores of a species of spore in a

can of food and a 12 D process was given, the initial 10,000 spores
(104 spores) would be reduced to 10-8 living spores per can, or it
means one living spore per 108 cans of product (one spore per one
hundred million cans).

If for example D115 was 1 min., the F value for the

process would be 12 min. or F115 = 12 min.
 F-value
(Sterilitazion Value)

If for example D115 was 1 min., the F value for the

process would be 12 min. or F115 = 12 min.

D121 of C. botulinum is 0.21 minutes

F value for the process would be .....minutes

Fo-Value

• The equivalent minutes of heating at

121.1oC (250ºF) (at the slowest heating point
in the container)
• Based on the destruction of a population of
bacteria having z-value of 10ºC

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC242582/
http://retortprocessing.com/heat-penetration/
Lethal Rate Value

To do the Fo calculation, it is necessary to

first understand lethality rate.

(T-121.1)/10
L = 10
For example, the Lethality Rate at 118.0°C is 0.49,
relative to 121.1°C (assuming z-value of 10°C).
This means that for every one minute of process
time at 118°C, the process is equivalent to
sterilization effectiveness of 0.49 minute at
121.1°C.
 Calculation of F0

D. Pistolesi, V. Mascherpa (1988) F0 Technical Note. Fedegari. http://www.fedegari.com/

 Thermal Processing Monitoring
& Validation

Contoh Role of ELLAB Systems in Retort Processing Applications

http://joeltech.in/retortprocessing/role-of-ellab-systems-in-retort-processing-applications/
 Sensor for Thermal Monitoring
(examples)

http://www.ellab.com/products/find-the-right-data-logger/tracksense-pro
 PRINCIPLES OF CANNING

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0007e/t0007e02.htm

 A primer on risk assessment modelling: focus on

seafood products...

http://www.fao.org/docrep/009/a0238e/a0238e03.htm
 Methods of thermal processing

The several methods of thermal

processing of foods are :
• Blanching
• Pasteurization
• Hot filling
• sterilization
 Blanching

• Blanching is a mild heat treatment commonly applied to fruits

and vegetables prior to freezing, drying, or canning.
• Blanching is performed to inactivate enzymes, enhance drying
and rehydration, remove tissue gases, enhance color of green
vegetables, and reduce microbial load.
• The effectiveness of blanching is usually evaluated by assaying
for peroxidase and catalase activity.
• Blanching is usually accomplished by bringing the product into
contact with hot water, hot air, or steam for a specified period
of time, depending upon the product and/or enzyme of
interest.
• Water blanching can be conducted as a batch operation by
dipping a batch of product in hot water for the required time.
• Continuous hot water blanching can be accomplished using a
screw-type, drum-type, or pipe-type blancher.
 Pasteurization

• Pasteurization refers to the heat treatment of food products,

mostly liquid or liquid with particulates, to inactivate
vegetative pathogenic microorganisms.
• The time temperature combination for the pasteurization of
milk, for instance, is 63 C for 30 min, referred to as a low
temperature, long-time (LTLT) process, and 72 C for 15 sec,
referred to as a high-temperature, short-time (HTST)
process.
• The heat treatment in pasteurization is not sufficient to
inactivate all spoilage-causing vegetative cells or heat-
resistant spores.
• the shelf life of pasteurized low-acid products such as milk
and dairy products is approximately 2–3 weeks under
refrigerated conditions.
 Pasteurization

• Ultrapasteurization refers to pasteurization at temperatures

of 138 C or above for at least 2 sec, either before or after
packaging.
• results in destruction of a greater proportion of spoilage
microorganisms, leading to an extended shelf life of about
6–8 weeks at refrigeration temperature. This process has
been used for flavored milks and non-dairy creamers in
portion pack cups.
• The choice of heating system for pasteurization depends on
the characteristics (rheological and thermal properties) of
the product, potential for fouling, ease of cleaning, and cost
of the heating equipment
 Pasteurization

A direct type heating system (steam injection and steam

infusion)
• is used for homogeneous and high-viscosity products and is
particularly suited for shear-sensitive products such as
creams, desserts, and sauces.
• A direct heating system (steam injection or steam infusion)
adds water to the product due to the condensing steam.
• The amount of added water should be either accounted for
in the product formulation or removed by pumping the
heated liquid into a vacuum cooling chamber.

indirect heating systems

• There are four main types : tubular, shell and tube, plate,
and scraped surface heat exchangers.
 Hot filling

• Acid/acidified products such as juices and

beverages packed in hermetically sealed
containers using an appropriate hot filling process
yield commercially sterile shelf-stable products.
• Hot filling, also known as “hot fill and hold,” refers
to filling unsterilized containers with a sterilized
acid/acidified food product that is hot enough to
render the container commercially sterile.
 Sterilization

• Sterilization refers to killing of all living microorganisms,

including spores, in the food product.
• Food products are never completely sterilized; instead, they
are rendered commercially sterile.

Commercial sterility means the condition achieved either

by :
• the application of heat, which renders the food free of
microorganisms capable of reproducing in the food under normal
non-refrigerated conditions of storage and distribution, and viable
microorganisms (including spores) of public health significance,
• the control of water activity and the application of heat, which
renders the food free of microorganisms capable of reproducing
in the food under normal non-refrigerated conditions of storage
and distribution.
 Microorganisms

• The microorganisms of importance in thermal

processing are bacteria and fungi because they can
grow in foods and cause spoilage or public health
issues.

Factors affecting microbial growth

• Growth of microorganisms is dependent on several
factors such as oxygen content, temperature,
relative humidity, pH, water activity (aw), redox
potential, and antimicrobial resistance.
• These factors can be grouped into intrinsic and
extrinsic factors.
 Microorganisms

• Characteristics of the food itself are known as intrinsic (pH, aw, redox
potential) factors whereas factors external to food are known as
extrinsic (oxygen content, temperature, relative humidity) factors.
• Most microorganisms grow best at neutral pH and only a few are able
to grow at a pH value of less than 4.0.
• Bacteria are more selective about pH requirements than yeasts and
molds, which can grow over a wide range of pH.
• Redox potential is the tendency of a substance to convert to its
reduced state by acquiring electrons.
• Based on oxygen requirements, microorganisms can be classified
into aerobes, anaerobes, facultative anaerobes, and microaerophiles.
• Based on the response to temperature, microorganisms can be
classified into psychrophilic, psychrotrophic, mesophilic, and
thermophilic.
• Relative humidity of the storage environment can affect growth of
microorganisms by changing the water activity of the food
 Thermal kinetics

• Destruction of a microbial population

 Thermal kinetics

Destruction of Quality Attributes :

• The destruction of nutrients and inactivation of enzymes
follow similar kinetics to that of the destruction of
microorganisms, which is first-order kinetics. Destruction of
nutrients in food products is quantified by the term cook
value.

• The C value at a reference temperature of 100C (212 F) and

a zc value of 33.1 C (59.6 F) is referred to as the C0 value.
 Thermal kinetics

Process optimization:
• The objective of a food processor is to produce a safe
product that retains nutritional and quality attributes at an
acceptable level.
• the appropriate combination of time and temperature used
for processing is based on factors such as nutrient
retention and enzyme inactivation in addition to safety
• Dc and zc values for destruction of nutritional and quality
attributes are generally larger than those for
microorganisms.
• thermal processing of food products at higher temperature
can achieve commercial sterility with better retention of
nutritional and quality attributes.
 Thermal process establishment

• The goal in thermal processing is to ensure that the

slowest heating point (cold spot) within a product
container receives adequate thermal treatment.
• There are two main stages in thermal process
establishment For in-container sterilization processes
:
– the temperature distribution (TD) test to identify
the slowest heating zone in the retort
– the heat penetration (HP) test to determine the
temperature history at the cold spot in
prepackaged foods.
• For in-flow sterilization processes, the TD test is not
required.
Thermal process establishment
 Thermal process validation

• Temperature measurement
• Microbiological validation
– Count reduction method
– End point method
• Time-temperature integrators

Process monitoring and control : Critical factors in

thermal processing
A critical factor is one that may affect the scheduled thermal
process and attainment of commercial sterility. critical factors
should be monitored and controlled to ensure safety of the food
product. Some of the critical factors related to the design of a
thermal process include factors related to the product, process,
and package.
 Emerging processing technologies

• Ohmic heating : also known as joule heating, electric

resistance heating, and electroconductive heating, is a
process in which an alternating current is passed
directly through a conductive food product.

• Microwave heating : are part of the electromagnetic

spectrum and have a frequency between 300 MHz
and 300 GHz. They lie between the radio (3 kHz–300
MHz) and infrared (300 GHz–400 THz) frequencies of
the electromagnetic spectrum. Microwave radiation
has the ability to heat materials by penetrating and
dissipating heat in them.
https://www.dairyscience.info/index.php/68-
articles/uncategorized/304-excel-spreadsheets.html

https://www.dairyscience.info/lethalcomp.aspx

www.iftps.org/downloads/references2.xls

extras.springer.com/2008/978-0-387-73513-9/General
%20method.xls

https://web.archive.org/web/20070929120654/http://www.fd
a.gov/ora/inspect_ref/itg/itgtc.html