Joenni Hans (2301884362)

Basic Food Biochemistry

1. Rice comes from carbohydrates where our body begins carbohydrate metabolism in
the small intestine where the simplest sugar such as fructose or glucose are absorbed
into the bloodstream where actually rice has only a small amount of these simple
sugars. Our body then converts the more complex chain of carbohydrates in rice to
glucose and then our body will release insulin hormone to facilitate the transfer of this
glucose into the cells where it mainly transfer to the liver and muscles but some
organs also metabolize glucose.

Metabolism

Anabolism Catabolism

Glycolysis
Chemosynthesis Photosynthesis Krebs Cycle
Respiration Electron Transport

Anaerobic Respiration /
Aerobic Respiration
Fermentation
Diagram 1. Metabolism

Metabolism are divided into two that is Anabolism where it turns something from
simple into complex and it needs energy to do so and Catabolism where it turns
something from complex into simple and doesn’t need energy and it let go of energy.
Anabolism consist of photosynthesis and chemosynthesis where catabolism consist
of respiration and the process of Glycolysis, Krebs Cycle, Electron Transport and
where respiration from catabolism is consist of Aerobic respiration and Anerobic
respiration or fermentation.

The mechanism of how it generates ATP as a final product is through

Glycolysis where it take place in the cytosol of the cell and it can be broken down
into 2 main phases such as the energy requiring phase and the energy releasing phase,
the energy requiring phase started with the molecule of glucose get rearranged where
 2 phosphate groups are attached to it. This phosphate groups will create the modified
sugar called fructose-1,6-bisphosphate where it is unstable and allowing it to aplit in
half and form 2 phosphate bearing 3-carbon sugars. Because the phosphates used in
these steps come from ATP, two ATP molecules get used up where the 3-carbon
sugars is formed and this happens when the unstable sugar breaks down are different
from each other. The only one can enter the following steps is 1-glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate but the unfavorable sugar such as DHAP can easily be converted into the
favorable one.
Energy releasing phase, in this phase every 3-carbon sugar is converted into
another 3-carbon molecule pyruvate trough the reactions of 2 ATP molecules and 1
NADH molecule are made. This phase takes place twice where once for each of the
two 3-carbon sugars and it makes 4 ATP and 2 NADH. Every reaction in glycolysis is
catalyzed by its own enzyme where the most important enzyme for glycolysis
regulation is phosphofructokinase and it will catalyzes the formation of the unstable,
2-phosphate sugar molecule, and fructose-1,6-bisphosphate. Phosphofructokinase will
speed up or slow down glycolysis in resoonse to the energy needs of the cell.
In conclusion glycolysis will convert one 6-carbon molecule of glucose into 2
3-carbon molecules of pyruvate where the last products are 4 ATP but 2 ATP was
already been used which leaves us with 2 ATP and 2 molecules of NADH abd 2
pyruvate molecules

2. There are 4 steps, that is Dehydrogenase, hydratase, dehydrogenase, and thiolase.

 It happens in cytoplasm where Fatty acid chain is dehydrogenated to create a trans
double bond between C2 and C3 where it is catalyzed by Acyl CoA dehydrogenase
and will produce trans-delta 2-enoyl CoA. It uses FAD as an electron acceptor and it
is reduced to FADH2. The trans-delta2-enoyl CoA that was produced is hydrated at
the double bond to produce L-3-hydroxyacyl CoA with the help of enoyl-CoA
hydratase.
L-3-hydroxyacyl CoA that was produced is then get dehydrogenated again to
create 3-ketoacyl CoA by 3-hydroxyacyl CoA dehydrogenase where this enzyme uses
NAD as an electron acceptor.Later Thiolysis will occur between C2 and C3 or alpha
and beta carbons) of 3-ketoacyl CoA, where this Thiolysis enzyme will catalyzes the
reaction when a new molecule of coenzyme A breaks the bond by nucleophilic attack
on C3 and where this will release the first two carbon units like acetyl CoA and a
fatty acyl CoA without two carbons and this process will stop until all the carbon in
the fatty acid are turned into acetyl CoA.
Lauric acid needs 2 ATP for the activation process of fatty acids where 2 negery
bonds are hydrolysed where during the process of beta-oxidation all of acyl-CoA will
be oxidized to acety groups. Lauric acid have 12 carbon atoms and will producec 6
acetyl CoA where each round of beta oxidation of acetyl CoA have and will release 1
NADH and 1 FADH2
There are 6 rounds where on the first round it produces CoA of 10 carbons with 1
acetyl CoA + 1 NADH and 1 FADH 2, the second round produces 1 Acyl CoA of 8
carbon atoms with 1 Acetyl CoA + NADH and 1 FADH 2, the third round produces 1
Acyl CoA 6 carbon atoms with 1 acetyl CoA + 1 NADH and 1 FADH 2, the fourth
round produces 1 Acyl CoA of 4 carbon atom with 1 acetyl CoA + 1 NADH and 1
FADH2, the fifth round produces 1 Acyl CoA of carbons with 1 acetyl CoA and 1
NADH2 and 1 FADH2, and the last round produces 6 acetyl CoA, 5 NADH 2 + 5
FADH2.
Each NADH holds 2,5 ATP, FADH holds 1,5 ATP, acetyl CoA that enters the
Krebs Cycle produce 1 ATP, 3 NADH and 1 FADH which conclude that there are 10
ATP per acetyl CoA and 6 acetyl CoA x 10 ATP equals 60 ATP in total and 5
FADH2 X 1,5 ATP – 2 equals 78 in total.

3. Vitamin B complex are one of the most essential group of vitamins and the key to
maintain the healthy of the nervous system, skin, eyes, hair, liver, brain function,
muscle tone and gastrointestinal tract where this vitamins are responsible for helping
enzymes release from food, giving cells plenty of oxygen, giving proper metabolism,
stabilizing our nervous system functions, keep our skin and hair healthy, preventing
defective vision and detoxifying organs.
Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) generate energy from carbohydrates where it is involved
in RNA and DNA production, as well as nerve fuction and its active from is a
coenzyme called thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP), which takes part in the conversion of
pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A (acetyl CoA) in metabolism. Vitamin B1 is good for
circulation, carbohydrate metabolism, brain function, nervous system health, and
cognitive activity
Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) helps with the energy production for the electron
transport chain, the citric acid cycle, as well as the catabolism of fatty acids or beta
oxidation. Vitamin B2 is good for digestion, metabolism of protein, metabolism of
fats, metabolism of carbohydrates and is also necessary for cell respiration where
Vitamin B2 is required for the formation of red blood cells and antibodies and
benefits vision, healthy skin, nails and hair.
Vitamin B3 (Niacin or vit P) have two structures that is nicotinic acid and
nicotinamide where there are two co-enzyme forms of niacin that is nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide (NAD) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate
(NADP) where they both play an important role in the transfer energy reactions in
glucose, fat and alcohol metabolism. NAD carrier hydrogens and their electrons
during metabolic reactions, including the pathway from the citric acid cycle to the
electron transport chain where NADP is a coenzyme in lipid and nucleic acid
synthesis. Vitamin B3 is good for lowering serum cholesterol, reducing high blood
pressure, preventing fatty buildup in the liver, maintaining the nervous system and
helping to reduce depression where it is needed for proper circulation and healthy
skin and thought to be better tolerated when taken with vitamin C.
Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) helps in the oxidation of fatty acids and
carbohydrates Co-A, which can be synthesized from Vitamin B5 as it is involved in
the synthesis of amino acids, fatty acids, ketones, cholesterol, phospholipids, steroid
hormones, neurotransmitters like acetylcholine and antibodies. Vitamin B5 is good
for anti-stress as it is involved in the production of neurotransmitters, convert fats
carbohydrates and protein into energy.
Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) it helps with the metabolism of amino acids and lipids in
the synthesis of neurotransmitters and hemoglobin as well as in the production of
Vitamin B3 and helps in gluconeogenesis. Vitamin B6 is good for menstrual problem,
as it helps remove excess fluid and reducing the risk of arteriosclerosis and stroke
where it acts and form antibodies and it is necessary for the synthesis and breakdown
of amino acids, the building blocks of protein as it also promotes healthy skin,
reduces muscle spasms, carpal tunnel syndrome, leg cramp and numbing of the
hands.
Vitamin B7 (Biotin) it helps with metabolism of lipids, proteins and
carbohydrates where it is a critical co-enzyme of acetyl CoA carboxylase which is
used in the synthesis of fatty acids from acetate, propionyl CoA carboxylase, used in
gluconeogenesis,  β-methylcrotonyl CoA carboxylase, and is used in the metabolism
of leucin and pyruvate CoA carboxylase, also in the metabolism of energy, amino
acids and cholesterol. Vitamin B7 is good and required by all organisms but can be
synthesized only by bacteria, yeast, molds, algae and some plant species.
 Vitamin B8 (Inositol) is used for treating and preventing diabetic nerve pain,
panic disorder, high cholesterol, insomnia, cancer, depression, schizophrenia,
Alzheimer’s disease, attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism,
promoting hair growth, a skin disorder called psoriasis, and treating side effects of
medical treatment with lithium where inositol is also used by mouth for treating
conditions associated with polycystic ovary syndrome, including failure to ovulate,
high blood pressure, high triglycerides, and high levels of testosterone.
Vitamin B9 (Folic acid) Folic acid acts as a co-enzyme in the form of
tetrahydrofolate (THF) where it helps in the transfer of single-carbon units in the
metabolism of nucleic acids and amino acids and tetrahydrofolate helps with
pyrimidine nucleotide synthesis, so is needed for normal cell division, especially
during pregnancy and infancy, which are times of rapid growth. Folate also helps in
erythropoiesis where it helps the production of red blood cells. Vitamin B9 is good
and necessary for DNA and RNA synthesis which in turn is essential for the growth
and reproduction of all body cells and it is essential for the formation of re blood
cells.
Vitamin B12(Cobalamin) helps in the cellular metabolism of carbohydrates,
proteins and lipids whete it is essential in the production of blood cells in bone
marrow, and for nerve sheaths and proteins. This vitamin also functions as a co-
enzyme in intermediary metabolism for the methionine synthase reaction with
methylcobalamin, and the methylmalonyl CoA mutase reaction with
adenosylcobalamin. Vitamin B12 is good for helping the formation and regeneration
of red blood cells and prevent anemia where it is necessary for calcium absorption
and carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism, also it helps with maintaining healthy
nervous system, and promotes growth and energy in children.

4. Stability and Functionality of lycopene in food system

Lycopene is a natural compound that gives red or pink pigments and it is well known
from their antioxidant properties where it can be found in the red colour of fruits and
vegetables like tomatoes, guavas, grapefruits, watermelons, and apricots. lycopene
has a lot of benefits so when they are processed into food products such as tomato
paste, tomato juice, guava juice and others we have to keep its benefits that’s why
food processing is very important so that we could preserve and keep the benefits of
lycopene. During food processing, lycopene remains stable in certain food processing
procedures, except at extreme conditions where it means that the lycopene are
exposed to a very high temperature and a very long period of heating where trans and
cis isomerization may happen during processing, especially in presence of fat and re-
isomerization always followed during storage time and where light and oxygen are a
other important factor to be aware of during food processing and storage and should
be avoided during long time storage where autooxidation may cause final
fragmentation of the lycopene molecule, which includes the flavor od the products to
be different and weird because according to some research, the lycopene stability
depends in the food system and if could really cause and effect. Stability in lycopene
also depends on the types of food matrices where when lycopene is diluted in foods,
lycopene was found very stable in orange juice but lycopene was loss in skimmed
milk and in water.

Stability and Functionality of lycopene in human health

 giving strong antioxidant properties where we known antioxidant in carotenoid

family and antioxidants can protect our body from damage that is caused by a
compound called free radicals where this free radicals can create oxidative stress
in your body if their levels are lower than antioxidant and that if the oxidative
stress can lean to some chronic diseases such as cancer, heart disease, Alzheimer,
and diabetes. We can conclude that lycopene’s antioxidants properties can help
our body to keep our free radicals levels to balance and protect out body from it
where lycopene can also protect us from the damaged that can be caused by
environmental toxins.
 Lycopene can also protect us against certain types of cancer that is breast and
prostate, where the strong antioxidant will help our body to slow down the
progression of breast and prostate cancers by limiting the growth of the tumor and
it can help to prevent the growth of cancer cells in our kidney and can lower the
risk of prostate and lung cancer.
 Lycopene can also protect us from sunburn where lycopene offer some protection
against the damaging effects caused by the sun and I can help the body to reduce
the intensity of skin redness and following exposure to UV rays by 40%-50% and
can increase our skin defence against sunburn and damage caused by UV rays.
 Lycopene can also help us with our eyesight where lycopene may prevent or
delaying the risk of cataracts and reducing the risk or macular degeneration which
leads to blindness to elderly.
 Lycopene can also keep our bone strong where the antioxidants in it can slow
down the death of bone cells and reinforce the bone structure and keeping the
bone healthy and strong.
 Lycopene can also protect our brain where the antioxidant properties will help our
body to prevent seizures and memory loss experienced like Alzheimer.