GOOD DAY

LIFE IS BEAUTIFUL SO APPRECIATE IT

• Timber is one of the most popular material
in light construction because of :
a) simplicity in fabrication
b) lightness
c) reusability
d) insulation from heat. sound &
electricity
e) aesthetically pleasing appearance
f) resistance to oxidation, acid attack &
salt attack and salt water
g) environmental compatibility
 STRUCTURAL WOOD

Wood
• is a hard fibrous substance that forms the
bulk of trees and shrubs beneath the bark.

• is not a processed material but an organic

material generally used in its natural state
• Wood cell is the basic structural element of
wood
• Cell walls consist of cellulose and lignin
• CELLULOSE is the load – carrying
material which the strength of wood comes
from.
• LIGNIN the “glue” that cements and
stiffens the fibers together and fills the
spaces between cell walls.
Cross Section through a Tree
 Annual Rings

Cambium Layer
Bark

Pith

STRUCTURE OF WOOD
 STRUCTURE OF WOOD
 “Bark” is a thin, rough and dense covering
that surrounds the trunk.
 “Cambium” is a thin (microscopic) layer of
wood cells exists inside the bark.
 The growth of wood takes place continuously
under the bark in the cambium layer resulting
ring knowns as “Annual ring”.
 Width of ring depends on the rate of growth of
the tree.
 “Pith” is the center of the log surrounded by
the annual rings.
 The number of rings approximately represents
the age of the tree.
 “Heartwood” is the inner part of the trunk is
made of dead tissue which primary function is
to provide mechanical support to the tree.
 Heartwood that is the older wood is darker,
drier and harder than the outer part.
 “Sapwood” is the outer part and it contains
living cells.
 The trunk place the role to convey a solution

called sap to the leaves & also to support the

crow at such a height as to ensure a

sufficiency of air & light.
 As one layer of woods succeeds another, the
cell in the layers die, cease to function for
food storage and only useful to give the tree
stiffness.
• Heartwood & Softwood
 Types Of Wood
 Wood is broadly classified into 2 categories
that is:
a) Hardwood
- trees with broad leaves that are shed in

winter.
b) Softwood
- Any species that have needlelike leaves
and that are generally evergreen.
• Hardwood Trees
• Softwood Trees
 Physical & mechanical properties of wood
differ from species to species & also within
species.
 Among the factor influencing it’s properties
are climate, density of the surrounding
forest, character of the soil, moisture
content, defects and the area in the log from
which the lumber is derived.
 FACTORS AFFECTING
STRENGTH OF TIMBER
• Density
• Moisture Content
• Temperature
• Grain structure
• Position in tree
• Condition of growth
• Defects
• Creep
• DENSITY
 Density of wood is defined as the mass or
weight per unit volume.
 Moisture in wood has a very large effect on
the specific gravity as well as the density.
 Timbers of young tree has a very low density,
therefore reduced stresses used for such
material.
 Weight of timber reduced by drying while
most strength properties are increased.
 The higher the density, so the higher it’s
mechanical properties.
• MOISTURE CONTENT
 Moisture content in a living tree varies with
the species.
 Even in the same species, variation in moisture
content depends on the age & size of the tree
and its location.
 Mechanical properties of wood influenced by
moisture content but modulus elasticity is less
affected by changes in moisture
 Strength of wood increase as the moisture
content decreases
 Moisture content determined by oven-dry
method or by electric moisture-meter
method
 Drying of timber from the green condition
as cut to constructional usable content of
say, 18% moisture content will cause
shrinkage.
• TEMPERATURE
 Strength of timber decreases, together with
increasing temperature
 Permanent loss of strength may happen if
wood is held at high temperature for a long
period.
• POSITION IN TREE
 In the early tree’s life, wood often tends to
become stronger with increasing distance
from the pith
• CONDITION OF GROWTH
 Environmental factor such as height above
the sea level, temperature, type of soil,
rainfall, spacing between the trees have
effect on the strength of the properties of
the timber
• DEFECTS
 Common defect are cracks, knots and slope
of grain and occur principally during the
growing period and the drying process.
 It can be classified:
a) knots
b) shake
c) split
d) check
Knots
 It is a cross-section or longitudinal section
of a branch that was cut with the lumber
 It could affect the mechanical properties of
wood
 Also allow stress concentration to occur
 Effect of knots depends on their position in
the section.
 Knots are harder, denser and possess
different shrinkage characteristics than those
of wood tissue.
Live Knots Dead Knots
• Shake
 Shakes are lengthwise separations in the
wood occurring between and parallel to
annual rings
Split
 It’s a complete separation of wood fibers
usually at the ends, throughout the thickness
of lumber and parallel to the fiber direction.
 could affect the durability of timber.
Check
 It’s a lengthwise separation of wood
occurring across or through the annual ring

usually as a result of seasoning.

 It can occur anywhere on a piece of
lumber.
• TIMBER DEFECTS
• DECAY or DESTRUCTION
 Decay is a decomposition of the wood
substances caused by fungi
 Wood suffered fungal attack can becomes
brittle or weak.
 Destruction is done by insects or marine borers
 Termites normally found in warmer climates &
wood beetles in conditions of high humidity
 SEASONING OF TIMBER
Seasoning is the process of removing
moisture from green wood. It is
accomplished by exposing to the air at a
certain period or by heating in kilns.
AIR DRIED
 timber is stacked and layered with air-space in
open sided sheds to promote natural drying
 is relatively inexpensive with very little loss in
the quality of timber if carried out correctly

KILN DRIED
 timber is dried out in a heated, ventilated and
humidified oven
 requires special equipment and is more
expensive in terms of energy input
 one advantage of this method is that the
temperatures used are sufficient enough to kill
any decay-causing organisms present in the
wood
 GRADING OF LUMBER
• Typically graded according to # of flaws,
that affect
 Strength, durability, or workability
• Stress graded
 Visual Grading, Machine Grading
• Common defects
 Knots, checks, pitch pockets, shakes,
and stains
Visual Strength Grading
This is the method of grading lumber based
on the physical observation of strength-
reducing defects. The grader examines each
piece to determine the type, location, and
size of various defects that might affect its
structural strength. This method is
inherently subjective since the technique is
based on the experience and judgment of
the grader.
Machine Strength Grading
This method is generally carried out by
conducting bending tests on planks of
timber which are fed continuously
through a grading machine. Each piece
is first subject to visual grading, then it
passes through the machine which
bends the piece to a predetermined
curvature and measures the force
required to bend (deflect) it.
 CLASSIFICATION OF LUMBER
BASED ON ITS
USES/APPLICATIONS
1. YARD LUMBER
- is defined as lumber of all sizes and
patterns, intended for general building
purposes. The grading of yard lumber is
based on the intended use of the particular
grade and is applied to each piece with
reference to its size and length.
1. YARD LUMBER
a. STRIPS – yard lumber less than 50mm (2”)
thick and less than 200mm (8”) wide.
b. BOARDS – yard lumber less than 50mm (2”)
thick and 200mm (8”) or more wide.
c. TIMBERS – yard lumber 125mm (5”) or more
in least dimension.
d. DIMENSION LUMBER – is a surfaced lumber
of 50mm (2”) through 100mm (4”) nominal
thickness designed for use as framing members
such as studs, joists, and small timbers
2. FACTORY/SHOP LUMBER

- comprise of factory plank graded for

doors, window frames, moldings, furniture,
sash, and other cuttings 25mm (1”) to
100mm (4”) thick and 125mm (5”) or more
wide, intended for general millwork and
other industrial commodities
3. STRUCTURAL LUMBER
- a lumber intended for use where working
stresses are required

a. BEAMS and STRINGERS (B & S)

Lumber of rectangular cross-section
with 250mm (5”) or more in width and
with depth more than 50mm (2”) greater
than the width. These are graded with
respect to its strength in bending when
loaded on the narrow face.
b. JOISTS and PLANKS (J & P)
Lumber of rectangular cross-section
with 50mm (2”) to, but not including
250mm (5”) width, and 100mm (4”) or
more in depth. These are graded with
respect to its strength in bending when
loaded on the narrow face as a joist or on
the wide face as a plank.
b. POSTS AND TIMBERS (P & T)
Lumber of square or approximately
square in cross-section measuring 250mm
(5”) x 250mm (5”) or more. The depth
should not be more 50mm (2”) greater
than the width. These are graded primarily
as posts and columns carrying
longitudinal loads, but adapted for
miscellaneous uses in which strength in
bending is not especially important.
 FINISHES DESIGNATION
Lumber could have rough or smooth surfaces. The
finishes designations of lumber are based on the
roughness or smoothness of its surfaces. Most
lumber used in building design is surfaced on both
the faces and on both edges and is referred to as
S4S (surfaced on four sides). If a designer
specifies a nominal size of lumber but does not
define which faces to be finished, the material
supplied will most likely be S4S. If some of the
combination of surfaced and rough faces is
desired, the designer may specify it. Other
combinations are defined by symbols S for sides
and E for edges. Examples of these combinations
include S2S1 E (surfaced on two sides and one
edge), S2S (surfaced on two sides only), S1S2E
(surfaced on one side and two edges), etc.
NOMINAL & ACTUAL SIZES OF TIMBER
• NOMINAL SIZE – is the commercial size
designation of width and depth, and is usually called
ROUGH LUMBER.

• ACTUAL SIZE -is the net dimension/size of timber

that has been dressed or planed smooth, and is
sometimes called DRESSED SIZE. Planning reduces
the nominal sizes, the amount of reduction depending
upon the size. For sizes from 50mm (2”) to 150mm
(6”) reduce by 9mm (3/8”) to get the actual or dressed
sizes. For sizes bigger than 150mm (6”) reduce by
12mm (1/2”). Dressed timber is adopted when it is
exposed to view has to be dress.
• ROUGH LUMBER – lumber that has been sawed but
has not had its four longitudinal surfaces finished. Saw
marks show on each surface.

• DRESSED LUMBER – lumber whose surfaces have

been finished (by planning or other means) Dresesed
lumber may be S1S, S2S, S1E, or S4S, according to
which faces have been finished (surfaced)

• WORKED LUMBER – lumber that has been dressed

and has also been matched or patterned. Matched lumber
has a groove on one longitudinal edge and a
corresponding tounge on the other. Pattern lumber
fastens together side by side with something fancier than
a plain tounge and groove or even plainer rectangular
rabbets.
WORK HARD AND ACHIEVE YOUR GOAL IN LIFE