Course Code: HUM203

Course Title: Sociology

Lecture / Week No: Sociological Research (02)

Instructor Name: Muhammad Faizan Khan

Reference Book: Introduction to Sociology by
openstax college

Department of Business Administration

Contents of Presentation

• What is the Scientific Method

• Major Research Designs
• Ethics of Research
• Technology and Sociological Research
• Social Policy and Sociological Research
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What is the Scientific Method?

• Scientific Method
• Systematic, organized series of steps
that ensures maximum objectivity and
consistency in researching a problem
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What is the Scientific Method?
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What is the Scientific Method?

• Defining the Problem
• State as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate
• Operational Definition: explanation of abstract concept that
is specific enough to allow a researcher to assess the concept
• Reviewing the Literature
• Refines the problem under study
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What is the Scientific Method?

• Formulating the Hypothesis
• Hypothesis: speculative statement about relationship
between two or more factors known as variables
• Variable: measurable trait or characteristic subject to
change under different conditions
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What is the Scientific Method?

• Formulating the Hypothesis
– Types of Variables:
• Independent variable: variable hypothesized to cause or
influence another
• Dependent variable: action depends on the influence of
the independent variable to affect its action
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What is the Scientific Method?

• Formulating the Hypothesis
• Causal Logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a
particular consequence, with one event leading to the other
• Correlation: Exists when a change in one variable coincides with a change in
another

Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation

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What is the Scientific Method?

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What is the Scientific Method?

Figure 2-4. Impact of a College Education on Income

Source: Author’s analysis of General Social Survey 2002 in J.A. Davis et al. 2003
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What is the Scientific Method?

• Collecting and Analyzing Data
– Selecting the Sample
• Sample: selection from a larger population that is
statistically typical of that population
• Random Sample: when every member of an entire
population has the same chance of being selected
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What is the Scientific Method?

• Collecting and Analyzing Data
– Ensuring Validity and Reliability
• Validity: degree to which a measure truly
reflects the phenomenon being studied
• Reliability: extent to which a measure
provides consistent results
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What is the Scientific Method?

• Developing the Conclusion
• Supporting the Hypothesis
• Sociological studies do not always generate data that support
the original hypothesis
• Controlling for Other Factors

Control Variable: factor that is held constant to test the impact of

the independent variable.
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Major Research Designs

• Research Design
– Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically

• Surveys
• Study, generally in form of an interview or
questionnaire, that provide sociologists with
information about how people act or think
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Major Research Designs

• Surveys
Quantitative research: collects and reports data primarily in
numerical form

Qualitative research: relies on what is seen in field and

naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and
communities rather than large groups or large nations
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Major Research Designs

• Observation
• Collecting information through direct participation and/or by
closely watching a group or community

Participant observation: when Ethnography: efforts to describe entire

sociologist joins a group for a period to social setting through extended
get an accurate sense of how it operates systematic observation
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Major Research Designs

• Experiments
• Artificially created situation that allows researcher to
manipulate variables
• Experimental Group: exposed to independent variable
• Control Group: not exposed to independent variable
• Hawthorne Effect: unintended influence of observers or
experiments on subjects
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Major Research Designs

• Use of Existing Sources
• Secondary Analysis: research techniques that make
use of previously collected and publicly accessible
information and data
• Content Analysis: systematic coding and objective
recording of data, guided by some rationale
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Major Research Designs

Table 2-1. Existing Sources Used in Sociological Research
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Major Research Designs

Table 2-2. Major Research Designs
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Ethics of Research
• Code of Ethics
1. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research
2. Respect the subject’s right to privacy and dignity
3. Protect subjects from personal harm
4. Preserve confidentiality
5. Seek informed consent
6. Acknowledge research collaboration and assistance
7. Disclose all sources of financial support
(ASA 1997)
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Ethics of Research
• Confidentiality
• Research Funding
• Value Neutrality
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Technology and Sociological Research

• Extend range and capability to conduct
research
• Allow researchers to store and analyze
large amounts of information
• Internet facilitates communication
between researchers
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Computer-assisted Telephone Interviewing

• The widespread use of answering machines, voice mail, and caller ID may make this
form of research more difficult in the twenty-first century.
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Survey Definitions
• Respondents are persons who provide data for analysis
through interviews or questionnaires.
• A questionnaire is a printed research instrument containing
a series of items to which subjects respond.
• An interview is a research method in which an interviewer
asks the respondent questions and records the answers.
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Research Methods: Secondary Analysis of Existing Data

• Materials studied may include:

• books, diaries, poems, graffiti, movies, television shows,
advertisements, greeting cards, music, art, and even garbage.
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Assignment:
• Bring one Sociology Research Report

• Choose any topic for your Sociology Research.

References / Resources

1. Introduction to Sociology by openstax college