Urban Water Management – What’s the

Problem?

Figure Source: http://waterbydesign.com.au/wp-content/uploads/drupals/IWCM-sml.jpg

Office of Research and Development

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Proposed Approaches

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Proposed Approaches

• Sustainable Urban Water Management (SUWM)

Office of Research and Development

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Proposed Approaches

• Sustainable Urban Water Management (SUWM)

• Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM)

Office of Research and Development

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Proposed Approaches

• Sustainable Urban Water Management (SUWM)

• Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM)
• Total Water Cycle Design (TWCD)

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Proposed Approaches

• Sustainable Urban Water Management (SUWM)

• Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM)
• Total Water Cycle Design (TWCD)
• Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD)

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
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 Central Themes of an Integrated Approach
(adapted from Marlow et al., 2013)

• Seek to establish a more

natural water cycle
• Utilize concepts of local
source diversification to
increase system security
and resilience
• Improve resource
efficiency

Source: Marlow et al., 2013

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
No longer a question of why,
but how

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
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 Barriers to Implementation
• Complex systems
• Investment in conventional approaches
• Institutional and/or technological ‘lock in effect’
• Lack of information, knowledge and understanding in applying integrated, adaptive
forms of management
• Quantification of resource efficiency
• Option identification and assessment
• No long-term vision, strategy
• Lack of political and public will
• Lack of objective and holistic evaluation methodologies
• Economics, of the monetary sort
• Practical challenges associated with day-to-day management of new and
innovative solutions
• Difficulty in accounting for non-monetary costs and benefits
• Unintended Consequences
• Predicting effects on the larger system
• Institutional Bias
Source: Arthur, 1994; Speers and Mitchell, 2000; Foxon, 2002; Kennedy et al., 2007; Wong and Brown, 2008; Brown et al., 2009; Brown and Farrelly,
2009; Brown et al., 2011; Moglia et al., 2012; Marlow et al., 2013
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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
An Integrated Sustainability Framework
Xue et al., 2015. Critical insights for a sustainability framework to address integrated community water
services: Technical metrics and approaches

Dimension Tool

Human Health Risk assessment tools, Life cycle impact

assessment

Economic Life cycle cost analysis, Triple bottom

line reporting

Environmental Footprints, Life Cycle Assessment,

Emergy
Resilience Literature review, combinations of
human health and environmental tools

Office of Research and Development

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
 Barriers to Implementation
• Complex systems
• Investment in conventional approaches
• Institutional and/or technological ‘lock in effect’
• Lack of information, knowledge and understanding in applying integrated, adaptive
forms of management
• Quantification of resource efficiency
• Option identification and assessment
• No long-term vision, strategy
• Lack of political and public will
• Lack of objective and holistic evaluation methodologies
• Economics, of the monetary sort
• Practical challenges associated with day-to-day management of new and
innovative solutions
• Difficulty in accounting for non-monetary costs and benefits
• Unintended Consequences
• Predicting effects on the larger system
• Institutional Bias
Source: Arthur, 1994; Harremoes, 1997; Speers and Mitchell, 2000; Foxon, 2002; Kennedy et al., 2007; Wong and Brown, 2008; Brown et al., 2009;
Brown and Farrelly, 2009; Brown et al., 2011; Moglia et al., 2012; Marlow et al., 2013; Mirchi et al., 2014
Office of Research and Development

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Emergy Analysis – past analyses
• Water Supply – one study included distribution system, few
include infrastructure
• Wastewater – none looking at collection system or
infrastructure
• Stormwater – mostly process (e.g. wetland) specific analyses
• Whole system – nothing

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Drinking Water Treatment Plant

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Wastewater Treatment Plant

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National Exposure Research Laboratory & National Risk Management Research Laboratory
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Base Case Results: DWTP, WWTP

GCWW DWTP MSDGC WWTP

1.72E+12 sej/m3 9.13E+11 sej/m3

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 Introduction (1)

 Rainwater harvesting (RWH): technology used for collecting

and storing rainwater for human use from rooftops, land
surfaces or rock catchments.

 One of the world’s most important ancient water supply

techniques (practiced for more than 4,000 years), is beginning
to enjoy a resurgence in popularity.

 Rainwater is an important water source in many areas with

significant rainfall but lacking any kind of conventional,
centralised supply system.

16
INTRODUCTION INTO
RAINWATER HARVESTING

17
Sigiriya, Sri Lanka.
18
Sigiriya, Sri Lanka. This reservoir cut into the rock was used
centuries ago to hold harvested rainwater.

                                        

http://www.itdg.org/html/technical_enquiries/docs/rainwater_harvesting.pdf
19
 Introduction (2)

 Rainwater is also a good option in areas where good quality

fresh surface water or groundwater is lacking.

 It could be used as a supplement to piped water supply e.g.

for toilet flushing, washing and garden spraying

 RWH is a decentralised, environmentally sound solution,

which can avoid many environmental problems often caused
in centralised conventional large-scale water supply projects.

20
 Types of Rainwater Harvesting Systems

1. Roof catchments
• Simple roofwater collection system for households
• Larger systems for educational institutions, stadiums, airports, and
other facilities
• Roofwater collection systems for high-rise buildings in urbanised
areas
2. Ground catchments (man-made)
3. Rock catchments (natural, impervious outcrops)
4. Collection of storm water in urbanized catchments for
recharge

21
 Typical Domestic Rainwater Harvesting
System

22
Source: http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/DTU/rainwaterharvesting/index.html
Ground Catchment System

Source: ENSIC (1991) 23

Ground
Catchment
System

24
Rock Catchment System

Source: ENSIC (1991)

25
Part 2

USES, ADVANTAGES &

LIMITATIONS
26
 Use of Harvested Rainwater
 Non-potable purposes (mainly in urban areas)
- Gardening
- Flushing
- Washing clothes/cars

 Potable purpose after ensuring quality

(mainly in rural and peri-urban areas)

27
Small-scale rainwater harvesting systems and
uses

28
 RWH in Urban Areas
 In view of increasing migration to urban area and the emergence of
mega-cities in the next millennium, it is imperative that water supply
systems should be evolved to cater for such a development.

 In areas with relatively high rainfall spread throughout the year, where
other water resources are scarce, RWH is an important option, for
example parts of Sri Lanka, Philippines, Indonesia, Nepal and Uganda.

 Installation RWH system is mandatory for the construction of buildings

in some towns in India and on the Virgin Islands, USA.

 Many government agencies and municipalities worldwide provide

grants/subsidies and technical know-how to promote RWH system.

29
 RWH in Urban Areas (2)

 In case of roof catchment systems, there is sufficient

flexibility to utilize systems that will be adaptable to suit all
socio-economic levels of population including the urban poor.

 Examples of typical options in urban area

- Rainwater use in households as a supplement
- Public institutions
- High rise building in high density urban areas
- Collection of rainwater in industrial areas
- Use of runoff in airports
- Collection of rainfall from public open spaces for
recharging
30
 Advantages of RWH
 RWH systems provide water at or near the point where water is
needed or used.
 Rainwater is relatively clean and the quality is usually
acceptable for many purposes with little or even no treatment.
 System is independent and therefore suitable for scattered
settlements.
 Local materials and craftsmanship can be used in construction
of rainwater system.
 Ease in maintenance by the owner/user
 Provides a water supply buffer for use in times of emergency or
breakdown of the public water supply systems

31
 Advantages of RWH in Urban Areas
 Flood control - by greatly reducing urban runoff;
 Stormwater drainage - by reducing the size and scale of
infrastructure requirements;
 Firefighting and disaster relief - by providing independent
household reservoirs;
 Water conservation - as less water is required from other
sources;
 Reduced groundwater exploitation and subsidence - as less
groundwater is required;
 Financial savings – where rainwater can be used in place of
water purchased from water vendors.

32
 Limitations of RWH
 The initial cost (mainly of storage tank) may prevent a
family from installing a RWH system.
 The water availability is limited by the rainfall intensity
and available roof area.
 Mineral-free rainwater has a flat taste, which may not be
liked by many.
 The poorer segment of the population may not have a
roof suitable for rainwater harvesting.

 Domestic RWH will always remain a supplement and not a

complete replacement for city-level piped supply or supply
from more ‘reliable’ sources.

33
Part 3

USES, ADVANTAGES &

LIMITATIONS
34
Part 3

SYSTEM COMPONENTS AND

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
35
RWH System Components
 Catchment Area/Roof
- the surface upon which the rain falls
 Gutters and Downpipes
- the transport channels from catchment surface to storage
 Leaf Screens and Roofwashers
- the systems that remove contaminants and debris
 Cisterns or Storage Tanks
- where collected rainwater is stored
 Conveying
- the delivery system for the treated rainwater, either by
gravity or pump
 Water Treatment
- filters and equipment, and additives to settle, filter, and
disinfect 36
Design considerations for rooftop catchment
systems (1)
 The material of the catchment surfaces must be non-toxic and
not contain substances which impair water quality.
 Roof surfaces should be smooth, hard and dense since they
are easy to clean and are less likely to be damaged and shed
materials into water
 Precautions are required to prevent the entry of
contaminants into the storage tanks.
- No overhanging tree should be left near the roof
- The nesting of the birds on the roof should be
prevented
- A first flush bypass such as detachable downpipe
should be installed

37
Design considerations for rooftop catchment
systems (2)
 All gutter ends should be fitted with a wire mesh screen to
keep out leaves, etc.
 The storage tank should have a tight-fitting roof that
excludes light, a manhole cover and a flushing pipe at the base
of the tank.
 The design of the tank should allow for thorough scrubbing
of the inner walls and floor or tank bottom. A sloped bottom and
a provision of a sump and a drain are useful for collection and
discharge of settled grit and sediment.
 Taps/faucets should be installed at 10 cm above the base of
the tank as this allows any derbis entering the tank to settle on
the bottom where it remains undisturbed, will not affect the
quality of water.
38
Factors affecting RWH system design
 Rainfall quantity (mm/year)
 Rainfall pattern
 Collection surface area (m2)
 Runoff coefficient of collection (-)
 Storage capacity (m3)
 Daily consumption rate (litres/capita /day)
 Number of users
 Cost
 Alternative water sources

39
Feasibility of Rainwater Harvesting
 The technical feasibility of roof RWH as a primary
source of water is determined by the potential of a rainwater
to meet the demand more effectively than other
alternatives.
 Often the attraction of RWH may be as a
supplementary water source to reduce the pressure on a
finite primary source or as a backup during the time of
drought or breakdown.
 The total amount of water that is received in the form
of rainfall over an area is called the rainwater endowment
of that area.
 The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all
the rainwater falling over an area cannot be effectively
harvested. 40
Feasibility of Rainwater Harvesting
 The size of supply of rainwater depends on the
amount of rainfall (R), the area of the catchment (A) and
its runoff coefficient (C).
 An estimate of mean annual runoff from a given
catchment can be obtained using the equation:

S =R*A*C
Where S = Rainwater supply per annum
R = mean annual rainfall
A = Area of the catchment
C = Runoff coefficient
 The actual amount of rainwater supplied will ultimately
depend on the volume of the storage tank or reservoir.
41
Catchment Area Size
 The size of roof catchment is the
projected area of the roof or the
building’s footprint under the roof.
 To calculate the catchment area
(A), multiply the length (L) and width
(B) of the guttered area. It is not
necessary to measure the sloping
edge of the roof.
 Note that it does not matter
whether the roof is flat or peaked. It is
the “footprint” of the roof drip line that
matters.

42
43
Characteristics of Roof Types
Type Runoff Notes

coefficient
GI sheets > 0.9 Excellent quality water. Surface is smooth and
high temperatures help to sterilise bacteria
Tile 0.6 – 0.9 Good quality water from glazed tiles.
(glazed) Unglazed can harbour
mould
Contamination can exist in tile joins
Asbestos 0.8 – 0.9 New sheets give good quality water
Sheets Slightly porous so reduced runoff coefficient and
older roofs harbour moulds and even moss
Organic 0.2 Poor quality water (>200 FC/100ml)
(Thatch) Little first flush effect; High turbidity due to
dissolved organic material which does not settle

Source: http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/dtu/rwh/components2.html 44
Example 1:
For a building with a flat roof of size 10 m x 12 m in a city with the
average annual rainfall of 800 mm

Roof Area (A) = 10 x 12 = 120 m2

Average annual rainfall (R) = 800 mm = 0.80 m
Total annual volume of rainfall over the roof
= A * R = 120 m2 x 0.80 m = 96 m3 = 96,000 litres
If 70% of the total rainfall is effectively harvested,
Volume of water harvested = 96,000 x 0.7 = 67,200 litres

Average water availability = 67,200 / 365 ~ 184 litres/ day

45
Storage System
 There are several options available for the storage of
rainwater. A variety of materials and different shapes of the
vessels have been used.
 In general, there can be two basic types of storage
system:
- Underground tank or storage vessel
- Ground tank or storage vessel
 The choice of the system will depend on several
technical and economic considerations like, space availability,
materials and skill available, costs of buying a new tank or
construction on site, ground conditions, local traditions for
water storage etc.
46
Storage System
 The storage tank is the most expensive part of any
RWH system and the most appropriate capacity for any
given locality is affected by its cost and amount of water it is
able to supply.
 In general, larger tanks are required in area with
marked wet and dry seasons, while relatively small tanks
may suffice in areas where rainfall is relatively evenly
spread throughout the year.
 Field experiences show that a universal ideal tank
design does not exist. Local materials, skills and costs,
personal preference and other external factors may favour
one design over another.

47
Requirements for Storage System
 A solid secure cover to keep out insects, dirt and
sunshine
 A coarse inlet filter to catch leaves etc.
 A overflow pipe
 A manhole, sump and drain for cleaning
 An extraction system that does not contaminate the
water e.g. tap/pump
 A soakaway to prevent split water forming puddles
near the tank.
 Additionally features
- sediment trap or other foul flush mechanism
- device to inside water level in the tank
48
49
50
51
RWH Brick Jars - Uganda

Source: Rees and Whitehead (2000), DTU, University of Warwick, UK

52
Rainwater Harvesting - Kenya

Source: John Gould (Waterlines, January 2000) 53

Ferro-cement jar
for rainwater
collection -
Uganda

Source: DTU, University of

Warwick (September 2000)

54
Underground lime and bricks cistern

55
Rainwater Harvesting – Sri Lanka

56
57
58
http://www.greenhouse.gov.au/yourhome/technical/pdf/fs22.pdf 59
 A wooden water tank in Hawaii, USA

                                              

Source: Rainwater Harvesting And Utilisation. An Environmentally Sound Approach for

Sustainable Urban Water Management: An Introductory Guide for Decision-Makers. ITEC,
UNEP, Japan 60
 61
http://www.arcsa-usa.org/
62
Rainwater Tanks

Source: http://www.greenhouse.gov.au
63
Storage capacity
 When using rainwater, it is important to recognize
that the rainfall is not constant through out the year;
therefore, planning the storage system with an adequate
capacity is required for constant use of rainwater, even
during the dry period.
 Knowledge of the rainfall quantity and seasonality,
the area of the catchment surface and volume of the
storage tank, and quantity and period of use required for
water supply purposes is critical.
 There are two commonly used method to estimate
storage requirements.

64
Storage capacity
Method 1 – Storage required for dry period
 A rough estimate of the maximum storage
requirement can be made based on the (i) per capita
consumption (ii) no of users and (iii) length of the longest
dry period

 For a household with a 5 people, assuming water use

of 20 lpcd and if longest dry period is 30 days and
rainwater is the only water source, storage required = 5
x 20 x 30 = 3000 litres

65
Storage capacity
Method 1 – Storage required for dry period
 This simple method assumes sufficient rainfall
and catchment area which is adequate, and is therefore
only applicable in areas where this is the situation.
 It is a method for acquiring rough estimates of tank
size.

66
Storage capacity
Method 2 – Based on rainfall and water demand pattern
 A better estimate of storage requirement can be made
using the mass curve technique based on rainfall and
water demand pattern.

 Cumulative rainfall runoff and cumulative water

demand in year is calculated and plotted on the same
curve.
 The sum of the maximum differences, on the either
side, between the rainfall curve and water demand curve
gives the size of the storage required

67
Storage capacity
Example 2:
Calculate the size of the storage tank required for a school
with 65 students and 5 staff, assuming average water
consumption of 5 litres/day.
Roof area = 200 m2.
Assume runoff coefficient of 0.9.
The rainfall pattern in the area is given in the table below

Average daily demand = 70 x 5 = 350 litres

Yearly demand = 350 * 365 = 127750 litres = 127.75 m 3
Average monthly demand = 127.75/12 ~ 10.65 m 3
68
Storage capacity calculations
(a) Rainfall pattern - 1
Month Rainfall
150
mm
Jan 120
Feb 90 100
Rainfall (mm)
Mar 70
Apr 120
May 40 50
June 50
July 45
Aug 15
0
Sep
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Oct 45
Month
Nov 70
Dec 45 69
Calculation of required storage capacity (1)
Month Rainfall Rainfall Water Cum. Rainfall Cum. Water Difference
harvested Demand harvested CH Demand CD CH - CD
mm m3 m3 m3 m3 m3
J 120 21.6 10.65 21.6 10.65 10.95
F 90 16.2 10.65 37.8 21.3 16.5
M 70 12.6 10.65 50.4 31.95 18.45
A 120 21.6 10.65 72 42.6 29.4
M 40 7.2 10.65 79.2 53.25 25.95
J 50 9 10.65 88.2 63.9 24.3
J 45 8.1 10.65 96.3 74.55 21.75
A 15 2.7 10.65 99 85.2 13.8
S 0 10.65 99 95.85 3.15
O 45 8.1 10.65 107.1 106.5 0.6
N 70 12.6 10.65 119.7 117.15 2.55
D 45 8.1 10.65 127.8 127.8 0

Required storage capacity = 29.4 m3 say 30 m3

70
Mass curve for calculation of required
storage capacity
Cum. Harvested Cum. Demand
140

120

100
Water (m3)

80

60

40

20

0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month

71
Mass curve for calculation of required
storage capacity
140
120 Harvested Water demand
Cumulative (m )

100
3

80
60
40
20
0
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month

72
Storage capacity calculations
(b) Rainfall pattern - 2
Month Rainfall

mm 140
Jan 120
120
Feb 100
Mar 100 100
Rainfall (mm)

Apr 115 80
May 60
June
40
July
Aug 20

Sep 0
Oct 55 J F M A M J J A S O N D
Nov 100 Months
Dec 120
73
Calculation of required storage capacity (2)
Month Rainfall Rainfall Water Cum. Rainfall Cum. Water Difference
harvested Demand harvested CH Demand CD CH - CD
mm m3 m3 m3 m3 m3
J 120 21.6 10.65 21.6 10.65 10.95
F 100 18 10.65 39.6 21.3 18.3
M 100 18 10.65 57.6 31.95 25.65
A 115 20.7 10.65 78.3 42.6 35.7
M 0 10.65 78.3 53.25 25.05
J 0 10.65 78.3 63.9 14.4
J 0 10.65 78.3 74.55 3.75
A 0 10.65 78.3 85.2 -6.9
S 0 0 10.65 78.3 95.85 -17.55
O 55 9.9 10.65 88.2 106.5 -18.3
N 100 18 10.65 106.2 117.15 -10.95
D 120 21.6 10.65 127.8 127.8 0

Required storage capacity = 35.7 + 18.3 = 54 m3

74
Gutters
 Gutters are channels all around the edge of a sloping
roof to collect and transport rainwater to the storage tank.
 A carefully designed and constructed gutter system is
essential for any roof catchment system to operate
effectively.
 When the gutters are too small considerable quantities of
runoff may be lost due to overflow during storms.

 The size of the gutter should be according to the flow

during the highest intensity rain. It is advisable to make
them 10 to 15 per cent oversize.

75
Gutters (2)
 A general rule of thumb is that 1 cm2 of guttering is
required for every m2 of roof area.
 Gutters can be semi-circular or rectangular and could be
made using a variety of materials:
- Locally available material such as plain galvanised
iron sheet (20 to 22 gauge), folded to required
shapes.
- Semi-circular gutters of PVC material can be
readily prepared by cutting those pipes into two equal
semi-circular channels.
- Bamboo or betel trunks cut vertically in half.
- Wood or plastic

76
Gutters (3)
 Gutters need to be supported so they do not sag or fall off
when loaded with water.
 The way in which gutters are fixed depends on the
construction of the house;
- it is possible to fix iron or timber brackets into the
walls, but for houses having wider eaves, some
method of attachment to the rafters is necessary.

 A properly fitted and maintained gutter-downpipe system

is capable of diverting more than 80% of all runoff into the
storage tank, the remainder being lost through evaporation,
leakage, rain splash and overflow.

77
 Gutters - Shapes and Configurations

Gutter configurations

78
Gutters - Shapes and Configurations

79
Gutters and Hangers

80
Shade cloth guttering

Source: Peter Morgan (1998)

http://aquamor.tripod.com/RAINWATER.htm 81
Plastic sheet guttering

                                        

http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/DTU/pubs/wp/wp55/8gutter.html 82
83
Gutter sizing
Recommended gutter widths for use in humid tropics
Gutter width (mm) Roof area (m2) served by 1
gutter
55 13
60 17
65 21
70 25
75 29
80 34
85 40
90 46
95 54
100 66

Source: (Still and Thomas, 2002) 84

Gutter sizing
Optimum roof area drainable by square gutters (considering
only conveyance)
Square Slope (%)
gutters
0.5 1 2 4

Gutter Optimum roof area served by gutter (m2)

width
33 mm 10 14 20 28

50 mm 29 42 60 85

75 mm 88 125 177 250

100 mm 190 269 380 538

Source: (Still and Thomas, 2002) 85

Guttering for a 60 m2 roof
Square Square Half round 45o Triangle
0.5% slope 1% slope 1.0% slope 1.0% slope

Material use 214 189 150 175

(mm)

Gutter width 71 63 96 124

at top (mm)

Cross 47 39 36 38
sectional area
(cm2)

Source: http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/DTU/rwh
86
Guide to sizing of gutters and downpipes for
rainwater harvesting systems in tropical regions
Source: www.sopac.org

Roof area (m2) Gutter width Minimum diameter

served by one gutter (mm) of downpipe (mm)

17 60 40

25 70 50
34 80 50
46 90 63

66 100 63

128 125 75

208 150 90
87
First flush system (1)
 Debris, dirt, dust and droppings will collect on the roof
of a building or other collection area.
 When the first rains arrive, this unwanted matter will
be washed into the tank. This will cause contamination of the
water and the quality will be deteriorated.
 Many RWH systems therefore incorporate a system
for diverting this ‘first flush’ or ‘foul flush” water so that it
does not enter the storage tank.
 Several first flush system are in use. The simplest one
is a manually operated arrangement whereby the inlet pipe
is moved away from the tank inlet and then replaced again
once the initial first flush has been diverted.

88
First flush system (2)
 For an average roof catchment it is suggested that
the first 20–25 L could be diverted or discarded.
 First flush devices should be regarded as an
additional barrier to reduce contamination and should not
be used to replace normal maintenance activities designed
to keep roof catchments reasonably clean.
 The inlet pipe to all rainwater tanks should be easily
detachable so that, when necessary, the tank can be
bypassed. Manual detachment could be used as an
alternative to an engineered first flush device, although the
level of control will not be as good.

89
First flush system (3)

Developed by Khon Kaen University, Thailand 90

First flush system (4)

91
First flush system (5)

92
First flush
system (6)

93
Device for separating rainwater from roof-
accumulated impurities

94
Roof catchment system with filter and
storage tank

95
Storage tank & first flush - Malaysia

96
Part 4

QUALITY ASPECTS OF RWH

97
 Quality of Rainwater (1)

 The quality of rainwater is relatively good but it is

not free from all impurities.
 Analysis of stored rainwater has shown some
bacteriological contamination.
 The rainwater is essentially lacking in minerals, the
presence of which is considered essential in appropriate
proportions.
 Cleanliness of roof and storage tank is critical in
maintaining good quality of rainwater.
 The storage tank requires cleaning and disinfection
when the tank is empty or at least once in a year.

98
 Quality of Rainwater (2)
 The extraction system (e.g. taps/faucets, pumps) must
not contaminate the stored water.
 The first run off from the roof should be discarded to
prevent entry of impurities from the roof.
 Some devices and good practices have been suggested
to store or divert the first foul flush away from the
storage tank.
 In case of difficulties in the rejection of first flow,
cleaning of the roof and gutter at the beginning of the
rainy season and their regular maintenance are very
important to ensure better quality of rainwater.

99
 Quality of Rainwater - Bacteriological
 Dust from the soil, and droppings of birds and animals
could be the source of contamination by the bacteria.

 When first flush eliminating devices are absent, all the

indicator bacteria are generally present in water samples in
numbers beyond what is acceptable by any standards.

 Tree hanging in the vicinity, definitely enhances the

possibility of contamination due to increased access of the
roof to birds and animals. Also leaves contribute to organic
loading of the water samples, which in turn act as nutrient
for bacterial growth.

100
 Disinfecting rainwater
• Rainwater is generally of very good chemical quality. However,
it may not meet WHO drinking water quality standards,
specifically microbiological quality standards, hence some
disinfection is recommended.
• Rainwater can be used for drinking, if it is clear, has no or very
little taste or smell and is from well maintained system.

• Disinfection can be done by:

• boiling the water in before consumption
• adding chlorine compounds/bleaching powder in required quantity
to the water stored in the tank
• using slow sand filtration
• solar disinfection (SODIS)

101
 Disinfecting rainwater (2)

 For disinfection using bleaching powder, the general

dosage recommended is 10 mg of bleaching powder
containing 25% of free chlorine per litre of water. This meets
the required standard of 2.5 mg of chlorine per litre of water.

 After adding the bleaching powder, the water should be

stirred thoroughly for even distribution of the disinfectant
agent. The water should be kept without use for about 30
minutes after adding bleaching powder.

102
 Operation and maintenance
 The simple operation and maintenance of RWH systems
is one of the most attractive aspects of the technology.
 The extent of maintenance required by a basic privately
owned household RWH system includes
- Regular cleaning of the roof tops and gutters
- Frequent cleaning of storage tanks
- Inspection of gutters and feeder pipes and valve
chambers to detect and repair leaks
 When ground catchment is used for collection and/or
ground tank is used for storage, proper fencing of both is
recommended to keep the children and animals away, thus
avoiding contamination and risks of falling into the tank.

103
104
One example of a flat screen
over the gutter to keep large
debris out of the tank.
A problem with gutter screens is
that they require a lot of
maintenance to keep leaves and
debris from piling up and
blocking the screens.
Also, dirt on the leaves can still
be washed into the storage tank.

Source: Guidelines on Rainwater

Catchment Systems for Hawaii

105
 Leaf Eater®/Leaf Beater®/Leaf Catcha®

Source: http://www.rainharvesting.com.au 106

 Tank desludging and cleaning (1)

 Accumulated sediments can be a source of chemical

contamination and off-tastes and odours. All tanks should be
examined for accumulation of sediments every 2–3 years.

 Sludge can be removed by siphoning without emptying the

tank. Sludge may also be pumped from the tank with minimum loss
of water by using a suitable motor-operated pump and
attachments.

 Sludge can also be removed by draining and cleaning the tank. If

a drain plug is provided at the base of the tank, water can be run to
waste to discharge the sludge. Once the tank is empty, the
remaining sludge can be scooped up and removed through the
access opening.

107
 Tank desludging and cleaning (2)

 It is important to check the structural condition of the tank before

choosing a method of cleaning.

 Cleaning should generally be limited to removing accumulated

sediments, leaf litter etc. Harsh (chemical) cleaning methods may
accelerate deterioration, for example, removing the protective layer
on the inside walls of a steel tank will lead to tank corrosion.

 After cleaning, it is recommended that the internal walls and floor

of the tank be rinsed with clean water. Rinse water and sediment
should be run to waste.

 Where cleaning necessitates entering the tank, take care to

ensure adequate ventilation is provided and an additional person is
in attendance.
108
 The Thai Rainwater Jar Programme
· Nationwide rainwater harvesting programme which dramatically
improved the rural water supply coverage, especially in North
eastern Thailand
• 10 million rainwater jars constructed in 5 years (1985-
1990).
· Factors favouring rapid development RWH programme
• a real felt need for water
• a preference for the taste of rainwater
• the availability of cheap cement and skilled artisans
• a pool of indigenous engineers, technicians and administrators
committed to rural development programme

109
 Thai Jar
Khon Kaen, Thailand

110
Source: http://www.ircsa.org
Rainwater Harvesting - Australia

More than one million

people in Australia rely on
rainwater as their primary
source of water supply

111
 Rainwater Harvesting - Australia
 In Australia the use of domestic rainwater tanks is an
established and relatively common practice, particularly in rural
and remote areas.
 Between 1994 and 2001, 16% of Australian households
used rainwater tanks, with 13% of households using tanks as
their main source of drinking water.
 7% of the capital city households and 34% of non-capital
city households have rainwater tanks.
 In a 1996 South Australian survey, 28% of Adelaide
households used rainwater tanks as the primary source of
drinking water compared to 82% households in the rest of the
State.
Source: Guidance on use of rainwater tank. En Health, Australian Government 2004
112
113
Rainwater
harvesting system,
in Patan,
Nepal

1 - Overhead tank
2 - Downtake PVC pipe from roof
3 - First phase storage drum
4 - Overflow goes into underwater
tank
5 - Pump to lift water to overhead
tank
6 - Sediment discharge tap
7 - 50,000 litre underground
ferrocement tank

114
Source: Nepali Times (16-22 August 2002)
Rainwater Harvesting in Tokyo

115
Rainwater Harvesting from Domed Stadium
in Japan

                                        

116
Source: Zaizen et al. (1999)
 Rainwater Harvesting from Domed Stadium
in Japan

_________________________________________________________
Stadium Tokyo Fukuoka Nagoya
_________________________________________________________
Catchment area
for storage (m2) 16,000 25,900 35,000

Capacity of
detention tank (m3) 1000 1800 1500

Utilization Flush toilets Flush toilets, Flush toilets

watering plants watering plants
__________________________________________________________
                                                                                    
Source: Zaizen et al. (1999)
117
 Rainwater Harvesting at Changi Airport -
Singapore

 Rainfall from the runways and the surrounding green

areas is diverted to two impounding reservoirs.
 One of the reservoirs is designed to balance the flows
during the coincident high runoffs and incoming tides, and the
other reservoir is used to collect the runoff.
 The water is used primarily for non-potable functions such
as fire-fighting drills and toilet flushing.
 Such collected and treated water accounts for 28 to 33%
of the total water used, resulting in savings of approximately
S$ 390,000 per annum.

118
 Rainwater Harvesting in Presidential Estate,
New Delhi, India

- About 7000 residing in the estate and about 3000 visitors

every day. There is also famous “The Mughal Garden”.
- Total water demand 2 million litres per day
- 30% of demand met by Groundwater wells in the estate and
groundwater level is going down rapidly) 119
Rainwater Harvesting in Presidential Estate,
New Delhi, India

 Rainwater from the northern side of the roof and

paved areas surrounding the presidential palace is diverted
to an underground storage tank of 100,000 litres capacity
for low quality use (5%).

 Overflow the rainwater storage tank is diverted to two

dug wells for recharging.

 Rainwater from southern side of the roof is diverted

for recharging a dry open well. Rainfall runoff from the
staff residential area is also diverted to dry wells.

 15 m deep recharge shafts have been constructed for

recharging. 120
 Water Supply at Millennium Dome, London

 Water Supply Plant, installed at the UK's Millennium

Dome can supply around 500 m3 per day of reclaimed water to
flush all of the toilets and urinals on the site.
 Water is reclaimed from greywater produced by the hand
wash basins, rainwater from the dome's roof, and groundwater
from the chalk aquifer which is located below the site.

121
 Water Supply at Millennium Dome, London

 Rainwater is collected from dome roof and adjacent

areas (100,000 m2)
 Size of collection tank is 800 m3
 Reed beds are used for treatment

122
 Socio-cultural Considerations (1)

 The success of any rain water harvesting system or

programme ultimately depends on the interest, enthusiasm
and active support of the user community for the technology.
 RWH system, even if technically appropriate and justified
based water resources condition, it is not likely to be
successful if it is socially unacceptable or inappropriate in
anyway.

 Local customs, perceptions and preferences must be

given high priority when considering the feasibility of the
technology and possible implementation strategies.

123
 Socio-cultural Considerations (2)

 It is always vital to be sensitive to local perceptions

regarding quality and suitability of rainwater.
 Although some people regard rainwater as sweet and
tasty (especially those used to drinking somewhat saline
groundwater), others consider it to be flat and tasteless
(particularly when compared to water with high mineral
content).

 Local customs, perceptions and preferences must be

given high priority when considering the feasibility of the
technology and possible implementation strategies.

124
 Public Awareness and Demonstration

 Public awareness and education are essential in order

to improve acceptance of rainwater collection and utilisation.
 Efforts should be made to change public perception of
rainwater from being viewed as a nuisance to being viewed
as an asset.
 Demonstration projects are key for improving public
acceptance and assisting in the removal of institutional barriers.

 To promote rainwater utilisation, basic policies,

implementation strategies, technology development and
networking are required.

125
126
 Bibliography
 Rainwater Harvesting and Utilization. An Environmentally Sound
Approach for Sustainable Urban Water Management: An Introductory Guide
for Decision-Makers. IETC-UNEP, Japan.
 Rainwater catchment systems for Household Water Supply (1991).
Environmental Sanitation Reviews No No 32. ENSIC, Bangkok, Thailand.
 UNEP-IETC (1999) Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Efficient Water Use in Urban Areas - Innovative Ways of Finding Water for
Cities. (8 to 10 June 1999), Kobe, Japan.
 Gould, J. and Nissen-Petersen, E. (1999) Rainwater Catchment
Systems for Domestic Supply. IT Publications, London

 Hasse, R. (1989) Rainwater Reservoirs- Above Ground Structures for

Roof Catchment. GTZ.
 NGO Forum and SDC (2001) Rain Water Harvesting System. NGO
Forum for Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation and SDC, Bangladesh.

127
 Web Resources on RWH
 International Rainwater Catchment Systems Association
http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/ircsa/
 American Rainwater Catchment Association
http://www.arcsa-usa.org/
 Centre for Science and Environment (CSE), India
http://www.rainwaterharvesting.org
 Development Technology Unit, School of Engineering,
University of Warwick, UK
http://www.eng.warwick.ac.uk/DTU/rwh/index.html
 Chennai Metrowater, India
http://www.chennaimetrowater.com/rainwaterfaqs.htm
 Rainwater Partnership
http://www.rainwaterpartnership.org/
128
 Web Resources on RWH (2)
 Lanka Rainwater Harvesting Forum
http://www.rainwaterharvesting.com
 Intenational Rainwater Harvesting Alliance
http://www.irha-h2o.org/
 Greater Horn of Africa Rainwater Partnership (GHARP)
http://www.gharainwater.org/
 The Web of Rain
http://www.gdrc.org/uem/water/rainwater/rain-web.html

129