CHAPTER THERE

LIGHTING SCHEME AND

BELL CIRCUITS

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Outline
Introduction

Terminology in illuminations

Different types of light sources

Various types of light schemes

Method of lightning calculation

Electric bell circuits

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 Introduction
 Any hot body radiates energy in all directions.
 Light is a form of radiant energy.
 A radiant body which gives out light is termed as a source of
light.
 Light waves emitted by the source fall on a surface to illuminate
it.
 The sensation of color is due to the difference in
wavelength of the light in the form of electromagnetic radiations.
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Electromagnetic radiation can be described as a
wave traveling at the speed of light. The wave, can
be characterized by a wavelength and a frequency.

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 We can classify electromagnetic waves as

 visible

 Invisible waves.

 Visible waves: daylight (sun), radiations from

candles and lamps
 Invisible waves: x-rays, gamma rays, IR rays,
radio waves, micro waves,

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Visible light is composed of different colors each having
different wavelengths (in Micrometer unit ).
These are:
0.300 – 0.436 micrometer --- Violet
0.436 - 0.495 >> --- Blue

0.495 - 0.566 >> --- Green 0.566

- 0.589 >> --- Yellow
0.589 - 0.627 >> ---- Orange
0.627-0.780 >> ---- Red
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•v  = fλ
Where, v = speed of light,
f = frequency and,
λ = wave length

E = E = energy

Angstrom unit (Ǻ):

1Ǻ = 10-8cm =10-10m
 λ of red light = 7500 Ǻ
 λ of violet light = 4000 Ǻ
 λ of green light = 5000 Ǻ
 λ of yellow light = 5660 Ǻ 8
 Those colors of white light having wave lengths
of less than 0.3 µm belongs to the ultra violet range
and those with wave lengths greater than 0.8 µm belong
to the infrared range.
 The visible spectrum ranges is from 0.4 to 0.7 µm
 Human eye is most sensitive to light having wavelengths
of about 0.555 µm in the green portion of the spectrum.
 Maximum power of light is radiated when the
wavelength is about 0.5 µm
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QUESTION 1.

How does the energy of electromagnetic radiation change

with increasing wave-length?

Energy decreases with increasing wavelength.

QUESTION 2
Can the frequency increase while the wavelength stays
constant?

No, if the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases.

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 Terminology in Illumination
 Luminous Flux (Ø)
 Luminous Intensity (I)
 Illuminance (E)
 Luminous efficiency (k)
 Luminance ( L)
 Coefficient of utilization (CU)

 Maintenance Factor (MF) 11

Luminous Flux (Ø)

 The flow of light from the source.

 The total quantity of light energy radiated/
produced from a luminous body in the form of light
waves.
 It is measured in lumens.
 It is represented by symbol φ.
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Luminous Intensity (I)

The power or strength of source of light.

 The illuminating power of a light source.

It is the amount of luminous flux emitted by a source per unit solid

angle. i.e. I = φ / ω,

Where, ω= the solid angle measured in Steradians.

It is measured in candela or lumens per Steradians.

1Candela = 1 Lumen / Steradians

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 Solid angle is given by the ratio of the area
of the surface to the square of the distance
between the area and the point. A / r2.
 Since the surface of a sphere has an area equal to 4πr2;

total angle of a sphere in Steradians will be 4πr2 / r2 = 4π

Steradians

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Illuminance (E)
 When the light emitted by the source falling on
the surface, it is illuminated.
 The Illuminance (E) is the light falling on the
surface
 The amount of light falling on a surface is
measured in lux or lumens per square meter.

Mathematically, E = φ/A 16
Luminous efficiency (k):

A measure of lumens per watt (lm/W).

It can be thought of as the ‘efficiency’ of the light source .

  Luminance, L:
The luminous intensity (I) per unit of the apparent area of

the source of light (or illuminated areas).

The measured brightness of a surface.

  L = I/A [cd/m2 ]
  17
Coefficient of utilization (CU)

This is a factor showing the ratio of the lumens reaching on

the working plane to the total lumens generated by the source.
It depends on:
 the dimension of the room to be illuminated,
 the reflectance of the walls,
 ceilings, and floors,
 the lamp output of reflectors and diffusers and
 the position of the lamp.
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Maintenance Factor (MF)

 The light obtained from a light source may be

affected by variables due to dire (obstacles, terrible),
ageing of the lamp, etc
 The maintenance factor (MF) takes in to account for
designing.

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 Laws of Illumination

There are two major laws.

 Inverse Square Law

 Cosine Law

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Inverse square law:

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•  states that,
It
 Illumination (E) of a surface is inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between a point source and the illuminated surface
as long as the point source remains the same i.e ( E= )

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 Cosine Law
•  
Cosine law states that, Reflected energy from a small
surface area in a particular direction is proportional to the
cosine of the angle between that direction and the surface
normal. E=

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Examples
Example1.
A standard incandescent lamp having a luminous intensity of
100 cd in all directions gives an Illuminance of 40 lux at the
surface of a bench vertically below the lamp.
What distance is the lamp above the bench?

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Solution

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Example2 :
A 250W sodium-vapor street lamp emits a light of 22,500 cd
and is situated 8m above the road. Calculate the Illuminance.

a) Directly below the lamp

b) At a horizontal distance along the road of 6m.

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Exercise:

Two light sources each having a uniform intensity of

64,000 cd is mounted 8m high. If the illumination
midway between the lamps on ground level is same
as the illumination level produced by one of the
lamp vertically below it, calculate the distance
between the poles.
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Different types of light sources
 The source of light is obtained from electromagnetic radiation.
 If the atom receives energy, it will release this energy via electrons hence
electromagnetic.
 This radiation obeys various laws and travels in straight lines and consists
of individual packets of energy called photons.
 The emission of radiant energy only occur if the electron also receives
energy.
 The two principal methods at which electrons (atoms ) receive energy by

I. heating – resulting in thermal radiation

II. collision – passing an electric current through a gas or vapor
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 source of light , which uses thermal radiation in
their process are called in general filament lamps.
 When an electric current passes through a fine metallic
wire, heat is produced and the temperature of the wire
increases.
 At low temperature the wire radiates heat energy.
 As the temperature of the wire increases due to heating, it
radiates heat as well as light energy.

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Generally, electric lamps can be classified in to:

a) Incandescent lamps

b) Discharge lamps

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 Incandescent Lamps (GLS)
 Filament:- constructed from tungsten wire which is

coiled.

When a tungsten filament is heated to a high temperature by

permitting a very large current to flow , it emits light

radiations.
 At temperature above 2800K, the rate of evaporation

increases so the life span is drastically reduced.

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Gas Filling :- rate of filament evaporation can be reduced
by raising the vapor pressure in the lamp by introducing

chemically inactive with hot tungsten gasses.

 Nitrogen & Argon
Glass Envelopes:-
Spherical or mush room
Can be clear, pearl(etched on the inside surface ) or inside
white coated with silica, titania or similar substances.

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The materials, which can be used as a filament are;
– carbon,
– osmium,
– tantalum and
– tungsten.

These metals are selected due to their high melting points.

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 There are two types of incandescent lamps:

1. Vacuum lamps - air is evacuated from the glass bulb.

Operates only up to around 20000 c.

2. Gas-filled - the glass bulb is filled with inert gases

(Ne or Ar )

Operates up to around 25000 c. In gas-filled

lamps, the bulb is so bright that it is given
an opaque coating internally.
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 The light output is about 10 to 15 lm/W. Thus,

a 25W IL produces about 250 to 375 lm.

a 40W IL produces about 400 to 600 lm.

a 60W IL produces about 600 to 900 lm.

The average lifetime of incandescent lamps is about 1000

hours when operating at rated voltage.

Incandescent lamps suffer from two disadvantages;

 Low efficiency and

 Colored light. 39
Discharge Lamps

Lamps which produce light due to the passage of electricity through a

gas are termed discharge lamps


Fluorescent Lamp (Low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamps)

Sodium lamp


High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp
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High and Low Pressure Lamps
Low Pressure Lamps
 Long distance between collisions and cause excitation

High Pressure Lamps

 Distance between collision decreased
Lamp type Main filling Starting
Fluorescent Tube mercury Argon
Low Pressure sodium sodium Neon

High Pressure sodium sodium Neon

High Pressure mercury mercury Argon & nitrogen

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 Fluorescent Lamp
(Low Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamps):

 Certain materials, such as calcium phosphate, emit

visible light whenever they absorb ultra-violet light.
 This phenomenon is known as fluorescence and may
be used to produce a very efficient type of lamp.

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 If a tube of a discharge lamp containing mercury Vapour is
coated internally with an even layer of fluorescent
material, a considerable proportion of the ultra-violet
light caused by the discharge is converted into useful
visible light.
 Low- pressure mercury Vapour lamp consists of glass tube
filled with mercury vapour at low pressure.
 Is provided with two electrodes coated with electron
emissive material.

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 The inner wall of the tube is coated with fluorescent powder
which transforms ultraviolet radiation in to visible radiation or light.
 The light output of a fluorescent lamp is 40- 70 lm/w and has an
average life of about 7500 hrs.
 The application includes:

lighting of shops, homes, factories, streets, ships, transport

(buses and trains), etc
 Using these tubes to achieve high lighting intensity
without excessive temperature rise and, the danger of glare is
minimized.
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Basic fluorescent lamp circuit/wiring diagram

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Starters
 During starting it is necessary to introduce a higher than normal
voltage to the lamp to assist ionization.
 Achieved by using a ballast (choke) in series with a discharge lamp
circuit.
 when the current through the ballast interrupts, a high voltage pulse
will appear in the electrodes of the respective discharge lamp bulb.
Facilitates ionization and conduction there after through the gas.
 Once the gas has began to conduct, its resistance will progressively
fall( as more and more atoms ionized )

The ballast Assist ionization and used as a current limiting device.

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Three methods are commonly available for starting the
discharge in a fluorescent tube:
 Thermal Start,
 Glow Start And

 Quick Start

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Thermal type starter

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 The thermal type starter switch has two contacts mounted
on bi-metal strips, a small heating coil being fitted very
close to the bi-metal strips but with no electrical contact
between them.
 The contacts are normally closed so that the main supply
is first switched ON and the full heating current passes
through the lamp electrodes.
 The current also flows through the starter heater and so
warms the bi-metal strips.

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 After a short period of time, the bi-metal strips warm
sufficiently to bend and open the contacts, thus striking the
lamp.
 As long as the lamp remains lighting, current flows
through the starter heater keeping the contacts apart.
 A small capacitor is often connected in parallel with the
starter switch contacts to suppress radio interference.

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Glow type start

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 The glow type starter switch consists of a small bulb
filled with inert gas (Argon, helium) and containing two
contacts, one of which is mounted on a bi-metal strip.

 The contacts are normally open so that when the main

supply is firs switched on full main voltage is applied to
the starter contacts.

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 This causes a glow discharge, which warms the bi-metal
strip making it to bend and close the starter contacts.
 The closing of the starter contacts allows full heating
current to pass through the lamp electrodes and also
extinguish the glow discharge.

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 After a short time, the bi-metal strip cools sufficiently to
open the circuit thus striking the lamp.
 As long as the lamp remains a light, the voltage applied
to the starter is insufficient to initiate a glow discharge
and so the starter contacts remains open until the
next starting operation.
 A small capacitor is often connected in parallel with
the starter switch contacts to suppress radio interference.

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Quick start or Instant type start

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 In the case of quick start or instant start, starting is
achieved by the use of autotransformer and an earthed
metal strip in close proximity to the tube.
 When the supply is switched on, mains voltage appears
across the end of the tube, and the small part of the
winding at each end of the transformer energizes the
filaments, which heat up.
 The difference in potential between the
electrodes and the earthed strip causes ionization,
which spreads along the tube. 56
Sodium Lamp

 it is a double glass container

• the inner glass tube filled with neon gas and

• some sodium dropes.

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 When the supply is switched on the lamp would not start as
the supply voltage is too low to start the discharge.

 The leak transformer connected across the main produces a

starting voltage of about 400V.

 The neon gas stars the discharge, and afterwards sodium

vaporizes and discharge continuous.

 The power factor is very low, about 0.3, hence a capacitor is

used to raise it.

 The efficiency is approximately 75 lumens per watt and the

lamp has an average life of 6000hrs. 58
High Pressure Mercury Vapour Lamp

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Practical Lighting Schemes

•
•

A good lighting system should produce uniform illumination

of not less than the required value. It should be free from glare
and hard shadows. In fact attempt should be made to have
quality of light as close to day light as possible.
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The interior lighting schemes may be classified as:
 Direct light:-the most commonly used type of lighting
scheme.
 In this scheme more than 90% of total light flux is made
to fall directly on the working plane
 Though it is more efficient but causes hard shadows and
glare.
 It is mainly used for industrial and general out-door
lighting.
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 Semi-direct lighting: - 60-90% of the total light flux is
made to fall down wards directly with the help of semi-
direct reflectors.
• The remaining light is used to illuminate the ceiling and
walls.
• Besides, this scheme avoids glare, it also improves the
efficiency of the system with reference to the working
plane.

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 Semi indirect lighting: - in this scheme 60-90% of
total light flux is thrown up wards to the ceiling for
reflection and the rest reaches the working plane
directly except for some absorption by the bowl.
• This lighting scheme has soft shadows and is glare free.

• It is mainly used for indoor decoration purpose.

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 lighting scheme: - in this scheme more than 90%
of total light flux is thrown upwards the ceiling for
diffuse reflection by using inverted or bowl reflector.
• In this scheme the glare is reduced to minimum.
• The resulting illumination is soft and more diffused.

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• The shadows are less prominent and the appearance of the
room is much improved.
• It is used for decoration purpose in cinemas, theatres
and hotels etc. and in areas where troublesome shadows
are produced if direct light in lighting is employed.

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• General lighting: - in this scheme lamps made
of diffusing glass are used, which gives nearly
equal illumination in all directions.
• All fittings may be reduced to five basic types
according to their light distribution as shown in Fig
below.

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Methods of lighting calculation

In order to estimate the number and the type of light fittings required

to suit a particular environment, it is necessary to know what level

of luminance is required, the area to be illuminated, the maintenance

factor and the coefficient of utilization, and the efficiency of the

lamps to be used.

A number of methods have been employed for lighting calculations

among which may be mentioned:

1. Watts per square meter method

2. Lumen or Light flux method 69
Watts per Square Meter method: -
• applicable for rough calculations.
• It consists in making an allowance of watts per square
meter of area to be illuminated.
• According to NEC 220- standard illumination is about

3 watt per ft2.

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Example: -
A house has an external dimension of 30ft by 50ft. If an 80w
fluorescent lamps, and 220V supply is used, determine the
size of the service wire and the number of lamps required.

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Solution:

A = 30ft X 50ft

= 1500ft2

• Total wattage required = 1500ft2 X 3w/ft2

= 4500w ⇒ 4.5Kw

• No of lamps required = 4.5Kw/80w = 56.1

⇒ 56 lamps - each 80w

• Current carrying capacity = 4.5Kw/220V = 20.5A

• Therefore, the size of the cable/ conductor will be select to serve

such current if there is no any correction factor. 72
Lumen or Light flux method: -

it is the most advisable method to be used.

• Lumens' reaching the working plane is calculated as:

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Electric Bell Circuits

The electric bell works using electromagnetic effect and consists essentially

of a U-shaped electromagnet, a soft iron armature, a striker, and a gong.

The magnet comprises two pole-pieces of soft iron wound with insulated

copper wire, either enameled or silk covered, the pole-pieces being fixed to

an iron frame, which acts as the magnet yoke. The armature is a piece of

soft iron so supported by a flat spring as to be attracted by the pole-pieces

when current passes through the coils. There are about three types of

bells divided according to their operation. - Single-stroke Bell

- Trembler Bell

- Continuous Ringing Bell

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Single-stroke Bell

• In this bell, there are two pole-pieces and frame or

yoke of soft iron, to which the two pole-pieces are
fixed.
• The yoke is made with extensions to which are fixed
the armature flat spring and the gong pillar.
• There are two terminals which are directly connected
to the magnetic coils. 77
• The external circuit includes a push button or switch, and
a source of electric supply which can be a battery or AC
supply.
• It may also be used in many other situations where a

longer signal would disturb clerical workers.

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Trembler Bell
This type of bell is essentially similar to the single stroke bell
Here the flat spring is attached to the back of the armature, and in
the rest position bears against an adjustable screw.
• The connection is made from one of the terminals through the
adjustable screw to the magnetic coils.
• When the bell push is operated, current flows from one of the
terminals through magnetic coils and along the flat spring to the
adjustable spring and back to the other terminal.

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Continuous Ringing Bell

• This is a trembler bell with mechanical and electrical

arrangements such that the bell continues ringing after the
bell- push has been released.

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• There are three terminals connected to the external circuit.
The bell as connected to the first two terminals is the
normal trembler bell.
• The extra terminal is provided, connected externally
directly to the supply terminal, and internally to the second
contact screw.
• This type of bell is useful for alarm circuits of various
kinds.

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 Buzzers:
• Are installed, where noisy sounds of bells are not
suitable.
• The buzzers operate on the same principle

of trembler bells, except they have no hammer

and no gong .
• The characteristic of buzzing is provided

by the vibration of the contact breaker movement.85

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Annunciators

• When a single bell operated from a number of positions of bell

pushes in separate rooms, it is necessary that the place of origin of
each call should be known.

• Visual indicator elements (flags) are attached to one

of the contact circuits.

• The movement of the indicator circuit may be seen through a hole

in a glass screen, each indicator element or flag being marked or
painted with the respective name or number designating the call
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area.
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Thank you
Q?
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