Day 1 - Part I - 18EPG304 Research Methodology 2.0 - DSU - RVMREDDY

Presentation
Day 1
Research Methodology
Center for Executive Education

Dayananda Sagar University
Innovation Campus
Hosur Main Road
Bangalore - 560 068
Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 1
R. Venkatamuni Reddy
Professor
Department of Commerce
Manipal Academy of Higher Education (MAHE)
Manipal
Karnataka – 576 104
Contact: 09686416733
rvmunireddy@gmail.com

Presentation Outline – Day 1
 Introduction to Research
 Social Science and Business Research
 Terminologies:
– Qualitative, quantitative research, Theory building,
Introduction to Data and Analysis,
– Primary and secondary data, Explorative, descriptive
and Causal analysis, Business research Process,
observational studies and designed experiments,
Introduction to Random variables, distributions and
sampling
– Introduction to R, Vector, matrices, R studio and hands on
exercises in the class.
 Self Study
Dr. R.: Venkatamuni
EthicsReddy-Professor-
in Research Research Methodology 3
Presentation Outline – Day 1
Art of learning from data – Data analysis I
Sources of Data Collection
Sampling Strategies
Details on Exploratory, Descriptive and Causal Research
Graphs and Numerical Summaries

"The secret of success is to know something
nobody else knows. "
Aristotle Onassis

Introduction
 The terms “Research Methods” and “ Research
Methodology” will be used interchangeably.
 Just Using Methodology as a more Verbose (Containing
more words or Using more words than necessary)
 The term “methods” to refer to tools and techniques used
to obtain and analyses data. It includes Questionnaires,
observations and interviews as well as both analytical
and non analytical techniques
 The term “methodology” refers to the theory of how
research should be undertaken
 we discuss theoretical and philosophical assumptions
upon which research is based and the implications of
theses for Dr.
theR. Venkatamuni
method Reddy-Professor-
or methodsResearch
adoptedMethodology 6
What is Research?
“Research is the process of investigating
Social/scientific questions”
To satisfy the need:
1. explain events
2. solve practical problems
3. demonstrate certain effects
• legal, social, professional, and scientific
considerations

Contd…
 Research information is neither intuitive nor haphazardly gathered.
 Literally, research (re-search) -“search again”
 Business research must be objective
 Detached and impersonal rather than biased
 It facilitates the managerial decision process for all aspects of a
business.
 Research is defined as the systematic and objective process of
generating information for aid in making business decisions
 Human Factors is the discipline that focuses on investigating issues
at the man-machine interface. Human-Machine System as an
integrated unit
 The role of experimental methods and statistics in investigating the
nature of the man-machine interface

Nature and Scope of Research
The research will involve an explanation of the methods used to
collect the data, will argue why the results obtained are meaningful
and will explain any limitations that are associated with them
The term is used wrongly
 Just collecting facts or information with no clear purpose
 Reassembling and reordering facts or information without
interpretation
 As a term to get your product or idea noticed and respected
The term is used rightly

 Data are collected systematically
 Data are interpreted systematically
 There is a clear purpose : to find things out

Nature and Scope of Research
 When listening to the radio, watching the television or
reading a daily news paper it is difficult to avoid the
term “Research”
 The result of research are all around us
Example:
 A debate about the findings of a recent poll of peoples
opinions inevitably includes of “Research”

 Politicians often justify their policy decisions on the
basis of “Research”
 Document programmes will tell about “Research
Findings”
 Advertisers may high light(+ve’s) results of research to
encourageDr.you to buyReddy-Professor-
R. Venkatamuni a particular product
Research or brand 10
Methodology
Characteristics of Research
The definitions of research, when considered
together, give us the following characteristics:
1. There is searching, investigation, or inquiry
presumably of a careful nature
2. The effort may be of a limited or of an extensive
nature
3. The purpose is to gain new knowledge or at least
a new arrangement and interpretation of existing
knowledge
4. The methods used may be those designated as
scientific or otherwise, but the attitude
presumably should be critical and the procedure
exhaustive
Contd…
5. In its commonly accepted application, research
is often “more a search” than “re-search”. The
aim of research is not always “the revision of
accepted conclusions, in the light of the newly
discovered facts”, but an attack on relatively or
entirely new or unexplored fields, because
every inquiry conducted scientifically has
reliability and inter-subjective certifiability.
6. The knowledge sought by means of research is
“new” knowledge, an addition to the existing
one – such additions involve various levels of
generalizations.
Contd…
7. Research serves public and not private ends.
Consequently, it is incomplete if it is not
reported and made available to others. In other
words, research seeks to add to knowledge in a
form that is communicable and verifiable.
8. Research involves systematic investigation, or
the use of “standardized” procedures, which
means, in a specific study, method serves the
investigation and it is up to the investigator to
chose a method or methods suited to his
problem.
In general, research is the application of the
scientific method that is the hallmark of
research.
Objectives of Research
i) Discovery of facts and principles
ii) Revision of accepted conclusions in the light of
newly discovered facts
iii) Add to the existing store of knowledge
iv) To generalize, extend, correct or verify
knowledge
v) Solution of a Problem
vi) To explain human society or to understand a
phenomenon in a better way.

Why we need Research
 What they(He / She) Observes Around

 In Response to a felt Need
 For the Solutions of some Difficulties
 In Search of a Better Life
 A Number of Other Reasons

Contd…
Individual Focused:
 Critical Thinking on Particular Social
Problems
 An Analytical Mind
 Systematic Discipline Approach to the study
of Problems
 Research Mindedness
 Control of Emotional Bias and ensure
Objectivity
Contd…
Society Focused Factors:
 A Better Understanding of Society
 Social Problems and Suggest Appropriate
Solutions
 To throw Light on Controversial Topics and
Gather Verifiable Knowledge which would

help resolves disputes
 To obtain data for Developing and
Evaluating program
Contd…
By Trial and Error, we found:

 Satisfactory Answers to Some Questions
 Incomplete or Inadequate Answers to some
 And no Answers to Other Questions.

Approaches to Research:
Precision vs. Generalizability
Experimental Research The research setting is
highly constrained and the measurement
procedures must be carefully defined and
precisely followed. Participants are randomly
assigned to conditions.
Differential Research Similar to experimental
research characteristics, except that the
comparison groups are two or more pre-
existing groups of participants.
Contd…
Correlation Research Quantifying the
degree of relationship between two
variables. The measurement procedures
must be carefully defined and precisely
followed.
Case-study Research Moving the participant
into a moderately limiting environment,
intervening, and then observing the
participant’s responses.

Contd…
Naturalistic Observation Observing
participants in their natural environment.
The researcher should do nothing to limit or
change the environment or the behavior of
the participants. Major constraint imposed
on observational methods. There is much
flexibility in choice of behaviors to observe.
Exploratory Research Preliminary efforts
preceding a more organized research plan.

Approaches to Research: Essential Requirements
1. Empirical. Gather evidence through observation and
measurement
2. Measurement. The variables of interest are measured

—through multiple techniques and perspective, if
possible
3. Replicability. Variables are measured consistently, and

in such a way as can be replicated by other researchers
4. Objectivity. It is important to approach research

questionsDr.and interpret
R. Venkatamuni results without
Reddy-Professor- bias
Research Methodology 22
Foundations of Research
This will provides an overview the major
issues in research and in evaluation and the
best place for you to begin learning about
research.
 Language of Research (LR)
 Philosophy of Research (PR)
 Ethics in Research (ER)
 Conceptualizing (Con)
 Evaluation of Research (ER)
Language of Research (LR)
I) Five Big Words
 Theoretical: Social research is theoretical,
meaning that much of it is concerned with

developing, exploring or testing the theories or
ideas that social researchers have about how the
world operates
 Empirical: It is based on observations and
measurements of reality -- on what we perceive

of the world around us

(LR) Contd…
 Nomothetic refers to laws or rules that pertain
to the general case and is contrasted with the
term "idiographic" which refers to laws or
rules that relate to individuals
 Probabilistic: It describes much
contemporary social research or based on
probabilities
 Causal: The term causal means that most
social research is interested (at some point) in

looking at cause-effect relationships (Note:
That it is spelled
Dr. R. causal not
Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- casual)
(LR) Contd…
 II) Types of Questions
 Descriptive: A study is designed primarily to
describe what is going on or what exists.

Ex: Public opinion polls that seek only to
describe the proportion of people who hold
various opinions are primarily descriptive in
nature
 Relational: A study is designed to look at the
relationships between two or more variables

Ex: A public opinion poll that compares what
proportion of males and females
(LR) Contd…
 Causal: A study is designed to determine
whether one or more variables (e.g., a
program or treatment variable) causes or
affects one or more outcome variables
Ex: If we did a public opinion poll to try to
determine whether a recent political
advertising campaign changed voter
preferences, we would essentially be
studying whether the campaign (cause)
changed the proportion of voters
(LR) Contd…
III) Time in Research: Time is an important element of
any research design
Cross-sectional: A study is one that takes place at a
single point in time. In effect, we are taking a 'slice' or
cross-section of whatever it is we're observing or
measuring
Longitudinal : A study is one that takes place over time
-- we have at least two (more) waves of measurement
in a longitudinal design. if you have two or a few
waves of measurement, you are using a repeated
measures design. If you have many waves of
measurement over time, you have a time series
(LR) Contd…
IV) Types of Relationship
 Correlational Relationship: It simply says that
two things perform in a synchronized manner. For
instance, we often talk of a correlation between
inflation and unemployment. When inflation is
high, unemployment also tends to be high. When
inflation is low, unemployment also tends to be
low. But knowing that two variables are correlated
does not tell us whether one causes the other.
 no relationship
 positive relationship
 negative relationship
(LR) Contd…
V) Variables
 A variable is any entity that can take on different
values
 For instance, age can be considered a variable

because age can take different values for different
people or for the same person at different times.
 Variables aren't always 'quantitative' or numerical.

The variable 'gender' consists of two text values:
'male' and 'female'.
(LR) Contd…
 An attribute is a specific value on a
variable. For instance, the variable sex or
gender has two attributes: male and female.
Or, the variable agreement might be defined
as having five attributes:
 1 = strongly disagree
 2 = disagree
 3 = neutral
 4 = agree
 5 = strongly agree
(LR) Contd…
 the term 'variable' is the distinction between an
independent and dependent variable.
 Independent Variable is what you (or nature)
manipulates -- a treatment or program or cause.

 Dependent Variable is what is affected by the
independent variable -- your effects or outcomes.

Ex: If you are studying the effects of a new
educational program on student achievement, the
program is the independent variable and your
measures of achievement are the dependent ones.

(LR) Contd…
VI) Hypotheses: A hypothesis is a specific statement of
prediction. It describes in concrete (rather than
theoretical) terms what you expect will happen in your
study. Not all studies have hypotheses. Sometimes a
study is designed to be exploratory. There is no formal
hypothesis, and perhaps the purpose of the study is to
explore some area more thoroughly in order to develop
some specific hypothesis or prediction that can be
tested in future research. Note: A single study may
have one or many hypotheses. Hypothesis that you
support (your prediction) the alternative hypothesis,
and all the hypothesis that describes the remaining
possible outcomes the null hypothesis
(LR) Contd…
VII) Types of Data: Fundamental distinction
between two types of data: qualitative and
quantitative. The way we typically define them,
we call data 'quantitative' if it is in numerical form
and 'qualitative' if it is not
 All quantitative data is based upon qualitative

judgments; and all qualitative data can be
described and manipulated numerically

(LR) Contd…
VIII) Unit of Analysis: One of the most
important ideas in a research is unit of analysis.
For instance, any of the following could be a unit of
analysis in a study:
 Individuals
 Groups
 Artifacts (books, photos, newspapers)
 Geographical units (town, census tract, state)
 Social interactions (dyadic relations, divorces,
arrests)Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 35
(LR) Contd…
IX) Two Research Fallacies: A fallacy is an error
in reasoning, usually based on mistaken assumptions.
 The Ecological Fallacy occurs when you make
conclusions about individuals based only on analyses
of group data
 An Exception Fallacy is sort of the reverse of the
ecological fallacy. It occurs when you reach a group
conclusion on the basis of exceptional cases

Philosophy of Research (PR)
I) Structure of Research: Most research projects
share the same general structure. The research process
usually starts with a broad area of interest, the initial
problem that the researcher wishes to study.
These, then, are the major components in a causal study:
 The Research Problem
 The Research Question
 The Program (Cause)
 The Units
 The Outcomes (Effect)
 The Design
(PR) Contd…
II) Deduction & Induction
 Deductive reasoning works from the more
general to the more specific. Sometimes this is
informally called a "top-down" approach

(PR) Contd…
 Inductive reasoning works the other way,
moving from specific observations to broader
generalizations and theories. Informally, we
sometimes call this a "bottom up" approach

Types of Research
Basic research
Applied research
Scientific Method

Basic Research
 Attempts to expand the limits of knowledge
 Not directly involved in the solution to a pragmatic problem
 Development of theory, principles and findings that
generalize over a wide range of people, tasks, and settings
 Ex1: Is executive success correlated with high need for
achievement?
 Ex 2: Are members of highly cohesive work groups more
satisfied than members of less cohesive work groups?
 Ex 3: Do consumers experience cognitive dissonance in low-
involvement situations?

Applied Research
 Conducted when a decision must be made about a
specific real-life problem
 Development of theory, principles and findings that are
relatively specific with respect to particular populations,
tasks, products, systems and/or environments
 Should McDonalds add Italian pasta dinners to its menu?
 Business research told McDonald’s it should not?
 Should Procter & Gamble add a high-priced home teeth
bleaching kit to its product line?
 Research showed Crest White strips would sell well at a
retail price of $44
Scientific Method
 The analysis and interpretation of empirical
evidence (facts from observation or
experimentation) to confirm or disprove prior
conceptions.

What is Good Research?
 Following the standards of the scientific method:
– Purpose clearly defined
– Research process detailed
– Research design thoroughly planned
– High ethical standards applied
– Limitations frankly revealed
– Adequate analysis for decision-maker’s needs
– Findings presented unambiguously
– Conclusions justified
– Researcher’s experience reflected
Basic Steps of a Research
 Find a topicWhat, When
 Formulate questionsWhat, Why
 Define populationWho, When
 Select design & measurementHow
 Gather evidenceHow
 Interpret evidenceWhy
 Tell about what you did and found out

Process in the Research

Process
 Problem statement(s) + background
 Purpose of the research
 Aims/objectives of the research
 Research question(s)
 Research hypothesis or hypotheses
 Review of the literature
 Conceptual, theoretical framework
 Design & Methodology, Sampling
 Collection of Data: Methods, measurements,
Assessment
 Analysis & Interpretation of Data
 Research dissemination & utilization
Six Steps in Process
 Research can be exciting and educational, as you
discover new things related to your research
project. This process will take you through a
number of steps with one step leading to the next
The important six steps process are
 (Step-1) Problem Definition: First define the
main problem that you want to answer through

your research
 (Step-2) Research Objective: Establish clear,
measureable objectives to assist you in

answering your problem
Six Steps in Process
 (Step-3) Research Design: To decide in what
way you will do your research
 (Step-4) Data Gathering: Obtaining the data
 (Step-5) Data Analysis and Interpretation:
work out what means and interpret it to answer
your objectives and overall research problem
 (Step-6) Presenting the Results: Write up
your findings and communicate them to your
audience

(Step-1) Problem Definition
A broad statement of the general problem and
identification of the specific components of the
research is problem definition
Example:
a) A problem for management could be : “Should the
current advertising campaign be changed”
b) The more specific research problem would be: “How
effective is the current advertising campaign”

(Step-2) Research Objective:
Students and academics frequently use the
following three terms to define their research
 Research Question
 Research Objective
 Research Hypothesis
 In a given research project all three might not be
used
 It can be used to guide your research
 It will ensure that you do not include material
that is not necessary to your research project
 Research Question: It is focused and allows
you to identify the specific information
Example:
a) What organizational polices can be
implemented to reduce employee turnover?
 Research Objective: It examine what issues
the research project will cover. The statement is

frequently broad, but needs to be sufficiently
focused to provide you with directions. The
objective should be written as a statement
regarding an action you are about to
undertake, using the word “To”
 Example Research Objective:
“to discover…”, “to determine…”, “to establish…”, “to
ascertain…”, etc…
a) “To determine why employees are leaving the firm”
 Research Hypothesis: It provide the specific answers to
questions that the research will examine often in an

empirical way. It denoted that the research hypothesis is
rejected or not rejected.
Example: “Employees will leave the firm if they believe
there are no internal advance opportunity”
 Hypothesis are Useful: Quantitative Research, Statistical
Analysis such as survey or experiment and to determine

the relation ship between the variables
(Step-3) Research Design
The research design is the “frame work or blueprint”
for collecting the information
There are three main research designs
 Exploratory Research
 Descriptive Research
 Causal research
Exploratory Research:
 It provides insights into , and an understanding of
he problem confronting research

 This is used when the researcher does not have
enough information on a topic and wants the

flexibility to explore the issue
 Methodologies include Secondary data and
qualitative research, such as expert interviews
and focus group
 Descriptive Research
 It describes certain characteristics, or functions,
the management is likely to be interested in

such as market conditions, customers opinion,
purchase behavior, and so on…..
 Methodologies include surveys, dairy panel and
observations

 Causal research
 To examine the cause-and-effect relationships
of certain variables the affect the problem
 It is quit structured in their design and the
researcher could be very good knowledge of
the variables
 The primary method of this type of research is
experimentation in which hypotheses are tested

We believe that there may also be a fourth type
of research
 Definitional Research: To define the domain
of issues and is frequently used in developing

ways to measure a given phenomenon
Example: When researchers examine service
quality, they frequently undertake a
preliminary phase of research to identify how
service quality should be measured in a given
service experience
(Step-4) Data Gathering
 Gathering or collecting of the data. The data
vary depending on the research design chosen
and the sources of the data
 There are two main sources of the data
 Primary Data
 Secondary Data: Data gathered and recorded
by someone else prior to and for a purpose
other than the current project . Is often:
 Historical
 Already assembled
 Needs Dr.
noR. Venkatamuni
access to subjects
Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 58
Advantages of Secondary Data
 Inexpensive
 Obtained Rapidly
 Information is not Otherwise Accessible
Disadvantages of Secondary Data

 Uncertain Accuracy
 Data Not Consistent with Needs
 Inappropriate Units of Measurement
 Time Period Inappropriate (Dated)

 Primary Data
 The data can be qualitative or quantitative.
Qualitative research methods are
“Techniques involving small numbers of
respondents who provide information about
their thoughts and feelings that are easily
projected to the whole population”. This
includes in-depth interviews, focus groups,
projective techniques, and observational
methods
(Step-5) Data Analysis - Interpretation
 It is expected that you can logically and
competently analyses and interpret the data that
you have gathered with appropriate techniques
 The interpretation of the analysis will bring out the
meaning of the data and convert the data into
useful information
 This will give you the information to answer your
research objectives and overall research problem
 To communicate the whole process you must be
able to present your research findings, the final
step in the research process
(Step-6) Presenting the Results
You may have done an excellent job

in planning your research,
gathering data and analysis the data
, but it can be wasted if you cannot
effectively communicate your
research results

The Relationship Between Research
Topic and Research Problem
Research Problem
Research Topic

“The formulation of the
problem is often more
essential than its solution”
Albert Einstein

Stages of the Research Process
Problem Discovery Discovery and
and Definition Definition
Research and so on
Design Conclusions and
Report
Sampling
Data Processing
and Analysis
Data
Gathering

Research Process Main Objective
 Identify Problem areas that are likely to be studied in
organization
 Discuss how problem areas can be identified in work setting
 State Research Problems clearly and precisely
 Develop relevant and comprehensive bibliographies
 Write a literature review on any given topic, documenting
references in the prescribed manner
 Trace and establish the links among the variable and evolve a
theoretical frame work
 Develop a set of hypothesis to be tested
 Identify the scope of any given study and the end use of the result
 Decide any given situation the type of investigation needed
 Identify of the two , a causal or a correlational study would be
more appropriate
Research Process Main Objective
 Trace and establish the links among the
variable and evolve a theoretical frame work
 Develop a set of hypothesis to be tested
 Identify the scope of any given study and the
end use of the result
 Decide any given situation the type of
investigation needed
 Identify of the two , a causal or a correlational
study would be more appropriate

Literature Review
The pieces of research will usually require the
incorporation of more literature than smaller research
projects. It is important to define what a literature
review is before discussing issues associated with
development one
 The first step is an integrated research review
 Which exams the previous work in the are and
identifies the existing relationships among variables
 The second type is a theoretical review
It exams the various theories that have been put forward
an argument as to which is most relevant
 In general background review literature, which will
give insights in to theReddy-Professor-
Dr. R. Venkatamuni issue or industry being examined
Literature Review
What is clear from all types of review is that you should
examine what has been written previously and learn
from the earlier work in the area
 What is literature review: In almost all cases there has
been extensive previous work related to your research
area/topic
 The most critical step in any process of a literature
review is to define what areas of literature should be
examined it allows you to
 Identity all the relevant issues or theories associated with
your research project
 Visually present how issues related to one another
 Prioritize Dr.
areas requiring further examination
R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 69
Literature Review
How much literature is enough?
 This question can be complicated. It depends on the
focus of your research. It is important to ensure that
the material is focused and relevant top your project.
How can be Literature be Used
 Look through the literature or business press identify
a topic that is of interest and meets the requirements
of your objective
Selecting a Topic
 Read resent journals, business publications, or even
text books, looking for issues or questions that you
think are worth investigating further
Literature Review
Background: There are two ways of literature
 1) The rational - examining the current issues in the
area
 2) The traditional – previous literature in the area
Methodology
 To identify how previous researchers have examined
an issue
Analysis
 Are your results as expected? Were hypotheses
accepted or rejected?
 Literature can be especially helpful if the results are
inconsistent with previous

Literature Review
Where to obtain literature
 Books and journals, Electronic data base, Government ,
industry and The internet

How to write a literature review
 Example: If you were looking at sponsorship literature, it
would be important to identify how various authors define

sponsorship and what the differences in definitions mean
 To put together a table of the relevant pieces of work
Referencing
 It is essential for you to appropriately reference others
ideas, that is to give credit where credit is due

Thank You

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Presentation

Center for Executive Education

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 2

Details on Exploratory, Descriptive and Causal Research

Graphs and Numerical Summaries

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 4

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 5

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 7

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 8

 Reassembling and reordering facts or information without

The term is used rightly

 Data are interpreted systematically

 There is a clear purpose : to find things out

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 9

opinions inevitably includes of “Research”

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 14

 What they(He / She) Observes Around

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 15

 Systematic Discipline Approach to the study

 Control of Emotional Bias and ensure

 Social Problems and Suggest Appropriate

Gather Verifiable Knowledge which would

By Trial and Error, we found:

 Incomplete or Inadequate Answers to some

 And no Answers to Other Questions.

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 18

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 20

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 21

2. Measurement. The variables of interest are measured

3. Replicability. Variables are measured consistently, and

4. Objectivity. It is important to approach research

meaning that much of it is concerned with

measurements of reality -- on what we perceive

Dr. R. Venkatamuni Reddy-Professor- Research Methodology 24

social research is interested (at some point) in

describe what is going on or what exists.

relationships between two or more variables

 For instance, age can be considered a variable

 Variables aren't always 'quantitative' or numerical.

manipulates -- a treatment or program or cause.

independent variable -- your effects or outcomes.

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 All quantitative data is based upon qualitative

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 The Research Question

 The Program (Cause)

 The Outcomes (Effect)

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main problem that you want to answer through

measureable objectives to assist you in

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the research project will cover. The statement is

questions that the research will examine often in an

Analysis such as survey or experiment and to determine

he problem confronting research