Part-ii

Fundamentals of Business Writing

 Chapter-7
Principles of Clear Writing
• Communication theory will help us to
communicate better.
• We apply theory to writing, speaking, and
nonverbal communication.
 The Basic Principle of Adaptation
• Symbols of communication should fit
receiver’s minds.
• In other words, adaptation means fitting the
symbols to specific receivers.
The Filter as the Basis for Adaptation:
• Meanings are in receivers’ filters.
• Good communication adapts to the receiver’s
filters.
 The Technique of Adapting:
• Adapting takes hard work.
• We work hard to find words that express our
thought.
• Adapting begins with visualizing your receiver,
determining what he/she knows, feels, thinks and
such.
• Often you need to communicate at levels lower
than your own.
 Cases of Adaptation:
• When you write to someone who is as educated
and informed on your subject as you are, your
communication task is relatively easy.
• If you are a technical person, writing on technical
subject to a technical person who will understand
it, you should write in the technical language that
both of you know and use.
 The Governing Role of Adaptation:
• Giving importance to simplicity or using simple
words, short sentences, and brief paragraphs.
• We should keep in mind that what is simple
for one person may not be simple for another.
 Care in Word Choice
Selecting Words the Reader Will Understand:
• Simplifying is a large part of adaptation for
three reasons:
(1) Many write at too difficult a level.
(2) Usually, the writer knows the subject better
than the reader.
(3) Results of research report simplification.
 Use Familiar Words:
• Familiar words communicate in a better way. So use
your judgment while choosing them.
• Example:
Unfamiliar words:
• The antiquated mechanisms were utilized for the
experimentation.
Familiar words:
• The old machines were used for the test.
 Choose the Short over the Long Words:
• As short words tend to communicate better than long ones, you
should favor them in your writing.
• A heavy proportion of long words confuses the reader.
• Examples:
Long Words
• They acceded to the proposition to terminate business.
• During the preceding year the company operated at a financial deficit
Short, Simple Words
• They agreed to quit business.
• Last year the company lost money.
 Use Technical Words with Caution:
• All fields have technical words.
• These words are useful when we
communicate with people in our own fields.
• But they do not communicate with outsiders,
so use them with caution.
 Bringing Writing to Life with Words:
• Short words alert sense organs best. Use them to hold the readers’
attention.
• You can bring your writing to life by following four simple but
important rules:
1. Select strong and vigorous words:
• Like people, words have personality. Some words are strong and
vigorous, some are dull and weak. And others fall in between
these extremes.
• For example, the word tycoon is stronger than successful
businessperson. The word boom is stronger than period of
business prosperity.
 Use the Concrete Words:
• Interesting business writing is marked by specific words – words that form sharp, clear meanings
in your readers’ minds.
• Concrete words are opposite of abstract words.
• Concrete words stand for things the reader perceives – things the readers can see, feel, hear,
taste, or smell.
• Example,
Abstract:
i. a significant loss
ii. good attendance record
iii. the majority
iv. In the near future
Concrete:
i. a 53 percent loss
ii. 100 percent attendance record
iii. 62 percent
iv. by Thursday noon.
 3. Favor Active over Passive Verbs:
• Use the active voice, but do not eliminate the passive voice.
• For the liveliest and most vigorous writing, you should make
good use of active voice.
• Active voice is stronger and shorter.
• Example,
Active: The auditor inspected the books.
Passive: The books were inspected by the auditor.
• Passive voice is better when the doer of the action is not
important.
 Avoid Overuse of Camouflaged Verbs:
•An awkward construction that we should avoid is the camouflaged verb.
•We camouflage a verb by changing it to a noun form and adding action words.
•Example,
Action Verb
acquire
appear
apply
discuss
Camouflaged Verb
make an acquisition
make an appearance
make an application
have a discussion
 Selecting Words for Precise Communication:
• Make tour writing precise, not fuzzy.
• Select the appropriate words to convey the
appropriate meaning.
• You should study language and learn shades of
differences in meanings of similar words.
• For example,
weary, tired, pooped, fagged out and
exhausted are all words that refer to the same
thing. But they differ in meaning. Weary is
more acceptable in formal letters than pooped
or fagged out.
 Avoiding Sexist Words:
• Many words in our language suggest male
dominance. It is better not to use them.
• Avoid using the masculine pronouns ( he, him,
his ) for both sexes.
• There are three ways to do so:
1. Reword the sentence:
Sexist
If a customer pays promptly, he is placed on our
preferred list.
Nonsexist
A customer who pays promptly is placed on our
preferred list.
 2. Make the reference plural:
• A second way to avoid the use of masculine
pronoun is to make the reference plural .
Nonsexist:
If customers pay promptly, they are placed on
our preferred list.
Supervisors are not responsible for such losses
if the are not negligent.
 3. Substitute neutral statements:
• A third way to avoid unnecessary use of the
masculine pronoun his is to substitute any of a
number of neutral expressions.
• Most common of these are he or she, he/she,
s/he, you, one and person.
• Example,
If a customer pays promptly, he or she is placed
on our preferred list.
When one needs service, it is one’s right to ask
for it.
 Words Derived from Masculine Word:
• Avoid words that suggest male dominance.
• Example:
Sexist
Manmade
Manpower
Policeman
Fireman
nonsexist
human made
workers
police officer
firefighter
 Words That Demean Women’s Status:
• Avoid words that demean the role of women.
• For example, instead of using the words my
lady for a secretary, it is better using the words
secretary.
• Instead of using the words lady lawyer,
authoress and poetess, it is better to use the
words lawyer, author and poet for female.
 Emphasis on Short Sentences
• Adapt sentences to readers.
• Long sentences are hard to read.
• Keep sentences short for best readability.
• Short sentences are achieved in two basic
ways:
1. Limiting Sentence Content
2. Economizing on Words
 1. Limiting Sentence Content:
• Limiting content is one way to make short sentences.
• Example,
Long and Hard to Understand
This memorandum is being distributed with the first-
semester class cards, which are to serve as a final
check on the correctness of the registration of students
and are to be used later as the mid-semester grade
cards, which are to be submitted prior to November
16.
Short and Clear
This memorandum is being distributed with
the first-semester class cards. These cards will
serve now as a final check on student
registration. Later they will be used for mid-
semester grades, which are due before
November 16.
 2. Economizing on Words:
• Another way to shorten sentences is through
word economy.
• There are several suggestions for doing this:
i. Cluttering Phrases:
• Avoid cluttering phrases and substitute
shorter expressions.
• Examples :
Long Way
In the event that payment is not made by
January, operations will cease.
Short and Improved Way
If the payment is not made by January,
operations will cease.
• Here are some other pairs of expressions:
Cluttering Phrases
along the line of
at the present time
for the purpose of
for the reason that
In the near future
 Substitute
like
now
for
because
soon
 ii. Surplus Words:
• Eliminate surplus words that add no
meanings.
• Examples,
Contains Surplus Words
He ordered desks that are of the executive type.
Machines that were damaged by the fire were
repaired.
Surplus Words Eliminated
He ordered executive-type desks.
The machines damaged by the fire were
repaired.
 iii. Roundabout Construction:
• Avoid roundabout ways of saying things.
• Say things direct to the point.
• Example,
Roundabout
The president is of the opinion that the tax was paid.
The department budget can be observed to be
decreasing each year.
Direct and to the Point
The president believes the tax was paid.
The department budget decreases each year.
iv. Unnecessary Repetition:
• Avoid unnecessary repetition of words or
thoughts.
• Example,
Needless Repetition
The provision of section 5 provides for a union
shop.
In my opinion I think the plan is sound.
 Repetition Eliminated
Section 5 provides for a union shop.
I think the plan is sound.
 Determining Emphasis in Sentence Design
• Any written business communication contains a
number of items of information, but not all of which
are equally important.
• Sentence length affects emphasis.
• Short, simple sentences carry more emphasis than long
ones.
• If the two ideas are presented equally – for example, in
independent clauses – they get about equal emphasis.
• Example,
The company lost money last year. The loss
occurred in spite of record sales.
• But if they are presented unequally – such as
in an independent and a dependent clause –
the former gets more emphasis than the
latter.
• Example,
The company enjoyed record sales last year,
although it lost money.
 Getting the Sentences Unity
• All parts of a sentence should concern one
thought.
• There are three reasons for unity error:
1. Unrelated Ideas:
• Unrelated ideas in a sentence violate unity.
• Example,
Unrelated
Our territory is the southern half of the state,
and our salespeople cannot cover it
thoroughly.
Improved
Our territory is the southern half of the state.
Our salespeople cannot cover it thoroughly.
 Excessive Detail
• Excessive detail is another cause of lack of
unity. If the detail is important, put it in a
separate sentence.
Excessive Detail
Our New York offices, considered plus in the 1960s
but now badly in need of renovation, as is the
case with most offices that have not been
maintained, have been abandoned.
Improved
Considered plus in the 1960s, our New York offices
have not been maintained properly. As they badly
need repair, we have abandoned them.
 Illogical Construction
• Active and passive voice in the same sentence
can violate unity.
• Example,
First we cut prices, and then quality was
reduced.
 Arranging Sentences for Clarity
• Words alone do not make a message. Their
arrangement plays a role in meaning our minds
give.
• All languages have certain rules of arrangement
( grammar ) that help determine meaning.
• For example, pronouns without nouns and
subject-verb disagreements do not make
sentence clear.
 Care in Paragraph Design
• In writing, we do not communicate by words
and sentence alone. Paragraphs also play a
major role.
• Much of paragraph writing depends on the
writer’s mental ability to organize and relate
facts logically.
• The following are general suggestions for care
in paragraph design:
i. Giving the paragraph Unity:
• Unity means oneness of a paragraph.
• It means that you should build the paragraph
around a single topic or idea – that is, you
should include only the major topic or idea and
the supporting details that help to develop it.
 ii. Keeping the Paragraph Short:
• In most forms of business writing, it will be
wise to keep your paragraphs short.
• Short paragraphs are more inviting to the
eyes.
• How long a paragraph should be depend on
the topic.
 iii. Putting Topic Sentences to Good Use.
• In organizing your paragraphs, we will need to
make effective use of the topic sentence.
• A topic sentence, is the sentence that expresses
the main idea in the paragraph.
• In most paragraphs, normally the topic sentence
comes first, but in some others, it may come at
the end, usually as a conclusion, and it can come
infrequently in the middle of the paragraph.
 iv. Omitting Unnecessary Detail.
• You should include in your paragraphs only the
information needed.
• Deciding what to include is a matter of
judgment.
• You can best judge by putting yourself in your
reader’s place.
 v. Making the Paragraph Move Forward.
• Each paragraph you write should clearly move
an additional step towards your objective.
• Good movement is helped by skillful use of
transition, smoothness in writing style.
 Chapter-8
Qualities of Effective Correspondence
• Your letter writing task increases as you move
up in an organization.
• If you are like the typical business executive,
your work routine will include a period for
handling the daily mail.
 Objectives of the Business Letters:
• By objectives, we mean what the writer wants
to achieve by writing the letter.
• The objectives of a letter determine the
techniques we use in writing it.
• There are mainly two objectives of business
letters:
1. The Primary Goal:
• Perhaps we write a letter to get certain
information.
• Maybe we seek to collect money or merely
communicate routine information to our
readers.
2. The Public Relations Goal:
• Correspondence is a major part of the
organization’s public relations effort.
• It involves making or keeping a friend for the
business.
 Conversational Style:
• Here, conversational style does not mean that you
should write letters exactly as you would talk to
your readers face to face.
• Rather it means that the words you use should
come from your speaking vocabulary, and the tone
of your writing should simulate friendly
conversation.
• Such writing produces a warmth that appeals to all.
 Some of the methods of acquiring
conversational style:
i. Avoiding the tendency to be stiff and formal:
• Writing in conversational manner is not easy.
Most of us tend to stiffen up, to become
formal whenever we write.
 ii. Avoiding the highly aristocratic and showy
languages of the past:
• The early business writers developed an
unnatural style for letters that became popular
as “ the language of business,” and that
language was influenced by legal language of
the court. This type of language loses its
charm now.
 iii. Avoiding the use of Rubber Stamps:
• Rubber stamps are a group of words and
expressions that we tend to us automatically in a
certain type of situation.
• They are expressions we use without being
conscious. We use them as their name implies-as
rubber stamps.
• In other words, expressions from the old
language of business are rubber stamps.
• Examples of Rubber Stamps are:
Herewith enclosed please find…
I hope this meets with your approval...
Kindly advise at an early date…
 The You-Viewpoint:
• The you-viewpoint, also called you-attitude,
emphasizes the reader’s interests. It is an
attitude that focuses on the reader’s point of
view.
• It involves using second-person pronouns like,
you and your. We can achieve more positive
effects by writing in the reader’s point of view.
• Example :
We-viewpoint
We have received your report of May 1.
We have shipped the two dozen Crown desk sets you
ordered.
You-viewpoint
Thank you for your letter of May 1.
Your two dozen Crown desk sets should reach you
with this letter.
 Accent ( voice, tone ) on Positive Language:
• Whether your letter achieves its goal often
depends on the words you use to carry your
message.
• Much of the difference lies in the words’
meanings.
i. Effects of Words:
• Positive ways are usually are best for your
letter goals, when persuasion and goodwill are
needed.
• Negative words stir up resistance and hurt
goodwill.
• So be aware of strongly negative words like
mistake, problem and that deny like no, do not.
• Examples of Word Choice:
Negative
We cannot deliver the goods until Friday.
Positive
We can deliver the goods on Friday.
 Overall Tone of Courtesy:
• Courtesy is a major contributor to goodwill in
letters.
• Courtesy maintains an ideal atmosphere for
success in most letter situations.
 Some of the ways of maintaining courtesy in
letters are:
1. Singling Out Your Reader:
• It involves writing directly for the one reader.
• It means giving the reader individualized
treatment, such as “ as you will agree, Ms
Smith,” adds to the letter’s effectiveness.
ii. Refraining from Preaching:
• We can enhance courteous tone by avoiding
preaching.
• Unnecessary preaching or lecturing causes
boredom for the readers.
iii. Doing More Than Expected:
• A good will-conscious writer would take the
time to explain and justify the answer.
• He / she might even suggest alternative
actions for the readers.
iv. Avoiding Anger:
• Angry words destroy goodwill and they make
the readers angry.
• Example of angry words,
I cannot understand your negligence.
we will not tolerate this condition.
 Showing Sincerity:
• If your letters are to be effective, people must
believe you. You must convince your readers
that you mean what you say.
• We can show sincerity by avoiding overdoing
goodwill and avoiding anger.
 Techniques of Emphasis:
• Emphasis also determines the effect of a letter.
• There are four major emphasis techniques:
1. Emphasis by Position:
The first and last sentences of a letter, first and
last sentences of a paragraph, and first and last
words of a sentence carry emphasis than the
middle parts.
2. Emphasis by Space:
The amount of space you devote to something
determines how much emphasis you give it.
The more you say about something, the more
emphasis it receives.
3. Emphasis by Sentence Structure:
Sentence structure determines emphasis. Short
and simple sentences emphasize the important
information than the longer ones.
4. Emphasis by Mechanical Means:
Mechanical devices ( underscores, colour,
diagrams, and such ) also give emphasis to
content.
 Coherence in the Letter:
• Letters should be coherent. The relationships
among parts should be clear. Presenting
information in logical order enhances
coherence.
• The four things that help to make a letter
coherent are:
 1. Tie-in Sentences:
• Tie-in sentences means skillfully relating the
ideas. We should design sentences to tie in
two successive ideas.
• Example :
Abrupt Shift
We have found some additional information you
will want to consider.
 Good Tie-in
In this same spirit of friendly objectivity, we are
confident that you will want to consider some
additional information we have assembled.
 2. Repetition of Key Words:
• By repeating key words from one sentence to the
next, we can make smooth connection of
successive ideas.
3. Use of Pronouns:
• Pronouns refer to previously used words, they
make good transitions between ideas.
• We should use demonstrative pronouns ( this,
that, these, those ).
 4. Transitional Words:
• By transitional words, we mean words that
link the thoughts in the message.
• Included are such words as in addition,
besides, in spite of, in contrast, however, thus,
therefore, for example, also.
 Writing For Effect In International Correspondence:
• When writing a letter for international
correspondence, we must be careful about cultural
and language differences.
1. Cultural Differences:
• We know that cultural variations exist across the
globe. For example, North Americans tend to stand
far apart while talking, but some Middle
Easterners stand close together.
 2. Language Differences:
• Language differences cause problems for
understanding the message of a letter.
• English is the main language of the international
business.
• But many non-native English speakers have
problems using English.
• So, it is better to know the language variations.
 3. Culturally Derived words:
• Culturally derived words. Especially, slangs
( brunch, hobo, bogus ) cause problems.
• Therefore, we should avoid them.
 An Approach To Letter Problems:
• Begin planning each letter by considering the
effect of the message on the reader.
• Look at the primary objective and public relations
objective of the letter.
• If the reader will react positively ( for example,
Good-News letter ), use the direct approach.
• If the reader will react negatively ( for example,
Bad-News letter ), use the indirect approach.
 Chapter-9
Sales and Applications
• Both sales and application letters sale.
• The sales letter sells a product or service, and
the application letter sells a person’s ability to
work.
• They both use similar persuasive strategies.
• The following techniques must be used when
you want to sell something:
 1. Need for Preliminary Knowledge:
• An initial step in sales writing is that you
should study your products or service.
• You must tell your potential buyers how the
product is made, how it works, what it will do
and what it will not do.
 2. Determination of Appeal:
• By appeals, we mean the strategies you use to
present a product or service favorably to the
readers.
• Appeals may be emotional ( to the feeling ) or
rational ( to the reason )
• Select the appeals that fit the product or
service.
 3. An Approach to the Subject:
• After selecting the appeal, you should write
the letter.
• Make your sales letters more creative . Use
psychology and skillful use of words.
 4. The Attention-Getting Opening:
• The main requirement of the opening is that it
should grab the attention of the readers.
• Most of the sales letters are sent without
invitation. So, if they don’t gain attention, they
will fail.
• Example of attention-getting opening:
Here is a proven best seller-and with a 12 percent
greater makeup!
 5. Presentation of the Sales Material:
• Plans for presenting appeals may be
emotional or rational appeals.
• Since sales writing is not ordinary writing, it
also involves ethical issues.
 6. Stress on the You-Viewpoint:
• You – Viewpoint is most important in sales
writing.
• Example,
Matter-of-Fact Statement
We make Aristocrat hosiery in three colors.
You-Viewpoint Statement
You may choose from three lovely shades.
 7. Clarity and Motion in the Action:
• End your letter with a drive for the sale.
• In strong selling efforts, a command is
effective. But for milder efforts, a request is
appropriate.
• Example,
Mail the enclosed card today-and see how right
the Atlantic is for you!
 8. Urgency in the Action:
• Sometimes your clients forget to take action.
• You should urge your clients or buyers to act
quickly by using words and phrases like, Do it
now, Act today, Take advantage of this three-
day offer.
 9. Recall of the Appeal:
• An effective technique for closing a sales letter
is to insert a few words that will recall the
basic appeal to the reader’s mind.
• Example ,
…and start taking your profits from the fast-
selling Ever-Flame grill.
 Applications for Employment:
• Resumes and application letters are most
important for a job seeker.
• Preparing the resume and application letter is
much like preparing a sales mailing. Both
situations involve selling.
• Your resume is much like the supporting
material that fulfills your application letter.
 While preparing application for a job, go
through the following processes:
1. Preliminary Planning:
• Plan the letter by first studying your
qualification. Then study the job.
• Next, decide on whether to send a letter alone
or with a resume.
 2. The Resume:
• The resume lists facts in some orderly way.
• The general type of resume fits a number of
companies and jobs.
• The personalized type fits one company and
one job.
 3. Selection of Background Facts:
• Begin preparing the resume by reviewing you
list of facts.
• Select all the facts that will help the reader
evaluate you.
 4. Arrangement by Groups:
• Organize the facts into logical groups.
• Such as experience, education, personal
qualities, and references.
 5. Wording of the Headings:
• Next , write topic headings like, personal
details, education, experience , and references.
 6. Presentation of the Data:
• List the facts under the headings.
• Include dates, places, firms and duties as a
minimum for a job experience.
• For education, include institutions, dates
degrees and area of studies.
• Include accurate mailing addresses ,
telephone numbers and job titles.
 7. Attractive Physical layout:
• Make the resume attractive to the eye.
• Use balance and space for the best eye
appeal.
 Letters of Application:
When writing an application letter, remember the
following techniques:
1. An attention-Getting Opening:
• An attention - gaining opening makes the stand out.
• An invited letter might refer to the job and the source
of the invitation.
• You can stress a need the reader has-one that you can
fill.
 2. Selection of Content:
• Present our qualifications and show how they
fit to the job.
• Include education, experience, and personal
qualities.
• The letter should carry all the major selling
points.
 3. An Order for Conviction:
• Use words that present the qualifications most
favorably.
• Avoid the tendency to overuse Is .
 4. Action in the Close:
• In the close, request whatever action is
appropriate.
• Make the action words clear and direct.
• Final words should recall benefits to the
reader.
 Chapter-10
Memorandums ( Memos )
The Nature of Memorandums:
• Memorandums are the letters inside the
organizations.
• They are the written messages exchanged by
employees in the daily conduct of their work.
• Most large companies use printed
memorandum stationery with Date, To, From,
and Subject.
• Memorandums tend to be informal when we
write to our colleagues and co-workers.
• And they tend to be formal when writing to
top administrators.
 Comparisons Between Memos and Letters:
• Memo and letter writing situations are similar.
• But memos differ in two ways:
i. Most memos are direct as the pertain to the
company rather than to personal matters.
ii. In memos, the effect of words is of little
concern.
 Direct Memos and Indirect Memos:
• The memos that deal with Routine Inquiries,
Routine Responses, Changing Policies and
Directives, apply direct approaches.
• The memos that are about bad-news, apply
indirect approach.
 Direct Memos
1. Direct Memo – Routine Inquiries:
• The direct- inquiry memo begins directly with
the objectives and then the necessary
information follows.
• Next, the specific information needed is listed
in logical order.
• It ends with courteous words.
 2. Direct Memos – Routine Responses:
• This type of memo responds to the inquiry
made by somebody else.
• The direct-response memo should be direct,
orderly, and clearly worded.
 3. Direct Memos – Policy and Directives:
• Company policies and directives can be written in
memo form.
• They should be somewhat formal, direct, clearly
written and well organized.
• For example, we can write policy memo on
reducing energy use.
• The beginning will be direct and immediately
identifies the situation.
 Indirect ( Bad-News ) Memos
• Although rare, memos refusing personal
requests occasionally are written.
• Such memos should be handled indirectly and
tactfully.
• The reasons for refusal should be stated
convincingly.
• The ending must be written in a friendly and
positive tone.
 Chapter-11
Public Speaking and Oral Reporting
• Normally, most of you oral communication will
be informal.
• But some of it will be formal, as in speeches,
lectures , meetings , interviews , and dictation.
 Making Formal Speeches:
• Making speeches is not easier for most of the
people.
• The following techniques should be considered
for making formal speeches:
i. Selection of the Topic:
• After selecting a topic, consider your knowledge
on the topic, your audience and the occasion.
• Conduct research to get information needed.
• The organize the information.
• The greetings usually comes first.
• Gain attention in the opening.
• Your opening should tie in with the subject.
• State the subject of your speech.
• The ending usually restate the subject,
summarizes and concludes.
 ii. Determination of Presentation Method:
• Choose one of the following presentation
methods:
a. Extemporaneous presentation ( involves
preparation, use of notes, rehearsal )
b. Memorizing.
c. Reading.
 iii. Confidence ( Consideration of Personal
Aspects ):
• Confidence in yourself is important. So is
gaining your audience’s confidence.
• Project the right image, and talk in a strong
and clear voice.
 iv. Sincerity:
• Sincerity is vital.
• Project an image of sincerity by being truly
sincere.
 v. Thoroughness:
• Thoroughness in your presentation will make
your message better received than
fragmented coverage.
 vi. Friendliness:
• People simply like people who are friendly and
are more receptive to what they say.
 vii. Audience Analysis:
• You should know your audience.
• Look for characteristics that will affect your
speech, such as audience size, sex, age,
education, and knowledge.
• Read the facial expressions, movements and
other feedback from audience during speech.
 viii. Appearance and Bodily Actions:
• Your audience forms impressions from your
appearance and bodily actions.
• Manage a proper communication
environment ( stage, lighting, etc. )
• Be careful about your posture.
• Your manner of walking.
• Facial expressions and gestures.
 ix. Use of Voice:
• Good voice is a requirement for good
speaking.
• Maintain pitch variations.
• Maintain variations in speaking speed.
• Maintain vocal emphasis.
 x. Use of Visual Aids:
• Use visual aids for the hard parts of the
message.
• Use chart , diagram and picture that will best
communicate the information.
 Techniques for Using Visual Aids:
• Visual aids carry key parts of the message, so
they are points of emphasis in your
presentation.
1. Make sure everyone in the audience can see
the visual aid.
2. Explain the visual aid so that there will not be
any misunderstanding.
3. Organize the visual aids as a part of the
presentation and fit them into the plan.
4. Emphasize the visual aids. Point to them with
bodily action and with words.
5. Talk to the audience, not to the visual aids. Look
at the visual aids only when the audience should
look at them.
6.Avoid blocking the listeners’ view of the visual
aids.
 Oral Reporting:
• In its broadest sense, an oral report is any
presentation of factual information using the
spoken word.
• A business oral report logically limits coverage
to factual business information.
• It covers the most routine and informal
reporting situations.
 The Differences between Oral and Written
Reports:
• Oral reports differ from written reports in three
ways:
1. Visual Advantages of the Written Reports:
• In writing, you can use paragraphs and other
forms of punctuation.
• On the other, in oral, we can only use pauses,
volume, mphasis and changes in delivery rate.
 2. Reader Control of Written Presentation:
• The speaker controls the pace of an oral
report, while the reader controls the pace of a
written report.
 3. Emphasis on Correctness in Writing:
• Written reports put more stress on
correctness.
 Chapter-12
Additional Oral Communication Activities
 Conducting and Participating in Meetings:
• Meeting involves oral communication.
• In a meeting, you will be either leader or
participant.
 Techniques for Conducting Meetings:
1. Plan the Meeting:
• Planning is necessary to make a meeting
successful.
• You should develop an agenda ( a list of topics to
be covered ).
• While making agenda, you should select the
topics that must be covered in order to achieve
the goals of the meetings.
 2. Follow the Plan:
• Follow the plan item by item.
• As a leader, you should keep the discussion on
track.
• If a new agenda ( items ) arise during the
meeting, you can take them up at the end.
 3. Move the Discussion Along:
• As a leader, you should control the agenda.
• When one item has been covered, you should
bring up the next one.
 4. Control Those Who Talk Too Much:
• Do not allow one person to talk too much.
 5. Encourage Participation From Those Who Talk
Too Little:
• Encourage everybody to take part.
 6. Control Time:
• Control time when time is limited.
 7. Summarize at Appropriate Places:
• At appropriate times, summarize conclusions
and comments made on each item.
 Techniques for Participating in a Meeting:
• As a participant in a meeting, you should do
the following:
1. Follow the Agenda:
• When an agenda exists, you should follow it.
• You should not comment on the agenda
brought by others.
 2. Participate :
• The purpose of meetings is to get information
form everybody concerned.
• Your participation should be meaningful.
 3. Do Not Talk Too Much:
• As you participate in meeting, avoid talking
too much.
• Always respect the rights of others.
 4. Cooperate:
• A meeting by its nature requires cooperation
from all participants.
• You should respect the other participants and
work with them in every practical way.
 5. Be Courteous:
• Courtesy is a part of cooperation.
• You should be courteous to other group
members.
 Interviewing People:
• In business, interviews are conducted for
employment purposes, to get information and
to give information.
 Guidelines for the Interviewer:
• Guidelines for the interviewer are as follows:
1. Plan the Interview:
• Usually you can write your needs in a series of
specific questions.
• You can make such a list and use it as the
outline for the interview.
 2. Put the Interviewee at Ease:
• Chances are that the interviewee will be
nervous.
• Nervous people cannot express their views
freely. Encourage them to speak freely.
 3. Make the Purpose Clear:
• Your interviewee should know the purpose of
the interview from the beginning.
• But if s / he does not know, you should explain
the purpose clearly.
 4. Let the Interviewee Do Most of the Talking:
• You can get the information you seek only
when the interviewee talks.
• Thus , you should allow the interviewee to do
the talking.
 5. Guide the Interview:
• Although the interviewee does the talking,
your task is to guide the interviewee through
the information needed.
 6. Listen:
• Listen and make it apparent that you are
listening.
 7. Keep a Record:
• Record information either during the
interview or soon after.
 8. End the Interview:
• End the interview with a finalizing question:
Is there anything else you would like to tell me?
If not, thanks for giving me your time.
 Guidelines for the Interviewee:
• Following are some guidelines for the
interviewee:
1. Prepare for the Interview:
• Prepare for the potential types of questions
and try to form their answers in your mind.
 2. Make an Appropriate Appearance:
• Be careful about accepted type of dress,
neatness, postures and facial expressions.
 3. Show Interest:
• Show interest by looking at the interviewer
and paying attention.
 4. Answer Correctly and Completely:
• If the interview serves a good purpose, it
deserves correct and complete answer.
 5. Practice Courtesy:
• Be courteous.
 Using the Telephone:
• Another communication activity in which you
are likely to engage heavily is telephoning.
• While making formal telephone conversation,
remember the following:
 1. Need for Favorable Voice Quality:
• In telephone, only voices are heard, the
speakers are not seen.
• The only impressions received are from the
words and the quality of the voices.
• So, friendly voices are important.
 2. Techniques of Courtesy:
• Be courteous.
• When calling, first, introduce yourself and ask
for the person you want.
• When receiving a call, identify the company or
office and then offer assistance.
 3. Effective Telephone Procedures:
• When calling, state your purpose early. Then
cover points systematically. Plan important
calls.
• Be considerate, listen, and do not dominate.
• Use time efficiently.
 Listening:
• Poor listening is a cause of miscommunication.
 Improving Your Listening Ability:
• To improve your listening, you must try to
improve.
• Keep yourself alert and force yourself to pay
attention.
• In addition, you should follow these specific
guidelines:
1. Stop talking.
2. Put the talker at ease.
3. Show the talker that you are listening.
4. Remove distractions.
5. Place yourself in the talker’s position and
imagine.
6. Be patient.
7. Hold your temper.
8. Make argument and criticism in the
appropriate time.
9. Ask questions to give the impression that you
are listening.
10. Stop talking.
 Chapter-13
Nonverbal Communication:
• Nonverbal communication means all
communication that involves neither written
nor spoken words, but occurs without the use
of words.
 Classification of Nonverbal Communication:
• Nonverbal communication includes kinesics,
proxemics, time language, paralanguage, and
physical context.
 a. Kinesics:
• Kinesics is the study of the body’s physical
movements.
• Our faces, eyes, gestures, postures, and
physical appearance reflect our inner
meanings.
 i. Face and Eyes:
• The face- particularly the eyes-tells what is
happening within us.
 ii. Gestures:
• Gestures are the movements of the arms, legs,
hands and head.
 iii. Body Shape and Posture:
• Body shape and posture convey some
meanings to others.
• How we sit, how we walk are meaningful.
 iv. Appearance:
• Appearance includes clothes, hair, jewelry,
cosmetics and such.
 b. Proxemics:
• Proxemics is another type of nonverbal
communication.
• It is the study of how we communicate with
the space around us.
• They create meaning in our mind and in
others’ minds.
 c. Time Language:
• Time language involves the meaning we give
to time.
• Culture teaches us about the meaning of time
 d. Paralanguage:
• Another type of nonverbal communication is
known as paralanguage or paralinguistics.
• By paralanguage, we mean how a person says
something.
• It involves how of a speaker’s voice rather than
what of the words.
• It involves those hints and signals in a person’s
voice that give us meaning.
e. Physical Context:
• Physical context in nonverbal communication
refers to how color and layout/ design
communicate.
• Colors are associated with moods and
behaviours.
• Layout and design ( carpeting, arrangement of
desks/chairs, office size ) communicate some
meanings.
 Chapter- 14
Business Report Writing
Reports: Problems, Organization and
Interpretations
• Reports are vital to the communication needs
of all large organizations.
• A business report is an orderly, objective
communication of factual information that
serves some business purpose.
 Determining the Report Purpose:
• Work on report begins with a problem.
• Your first step is to get the problem in mind.
 i. The Preliminary Investigation:
• First , gather all the information you need to
understand the problem.
 ii. Clear Statement of Problem:
• Once you understand your problem, your next
step is to state it clearly.
• The problem statement may be:
1. An infinitive phrase:
The purpose of the report is to determine the
cause of decreasing sales at Store X.
2. A question:
What are the causes of decreasing sales at
Store X ?
3. A declarative statement:
Store X sales are decreasing, and management
wants to know why.
 iii. Determination of Factors:
• Next you should determine the factors of the
problem.
• The factors may be subtopics of the main
topics, hypothesis, or bases of comparisons.
 iv. Use of Subtopics in Information Reports:
• Subtopics of the overall subject are the factors
in information reports.
• example:
Problem Statement:
To review operations of Company X from
January 1 through March 31.
 v. Hypotheses for Problem of Solution:
• Hypotheses ( possible explanations of the
problem ) may be the factors in problems that
require solution.
• Example,
Problem Statement:
Why have sales declined at the Milton store?
Hypotheses:
1. Competitors’ activities have caused the
decline.
2. Changes in the local economy have caused
the decline.
3. Merchandising deficiencies have caused the
decline.
 Major Differences Between Short and Long
Report:
• The shorter reports forms are most common
in business.
• Four major differences exist between long and
short reports:
 1. Less Need for Introductory Material:
• Shorter reports need little introductory
material.
• Such reports concern day-to-day problems,
and the readers’ interests are in the report
findings and they can take the appropriate
actions.
 2. Predominance of Direct Order:
• Usually shorter reports begin directly with
conclusions or recommendations.
 3. More Personal Writing Style:
• Personal writing is common in shorter reports
because they involve personal relationships
and concern a personal investigations,
 4. Less need for a Formal Coherence Plan:
• Long reports need sentences and paragraphs
in key places for coherence.
• The shorter reports, on the other hand, needs
less formal coherence plan.
Short Forms of Reports:
The following are the more popular short
reports:
 1. The Short Report:
• The short report consists of title page and
report text.
• Usually it is written in the direct order,
beginning with a summary.
• The introduction comes next, followed by the
findings and analysis, and finally conclusion.
 2. Letter Reports:
• Letter reports are reports in letter form.
• Usually they deal with short problems.
• Typically they are written in personal style.
• We can make subject line that gives
introductory facts.
 3. Memorandum Reports:
• Some reports resemble memos.
• They are widely used as internal written
messages, and most are written informally.
 Organization and Content of Longer Reports:
• The long report is long and formal.
• The following is the pattern of a long report:
 Prefatory parts:
• Title fly
• Title page
• Letter of authorization
• Letter of acceptance
• Executive summary ( overview of the subject
matter, methods of analysis, findings and
recommendations.
 Text Parts:
• Introduction ( outline of report’s structure )
• Body ( headings and subheadings )
• Conclusion and recommendations
• References
 Supplementary Part:
• Bibliography
• Appendix
 Title fly:
• The title fly , the first prefatory part, contains
only the title.
 Title Page:
• The title page includes the title, the receiver,
and the writer of the report.
 Letter of Authorization:
• The primary objective of letter of
authorization is to authorize the researcher to
begin the investigation.
 Letter of Acceptance:
• Letter of acceptance tells about the
acceptance of the report by a research
committee.
 The Executive Summary:
• The executive summary concisely summarizes
all of the report’s essential ingredients.
 Introduction:
• The introduction prepares the readers to
receive the report.
 The Report Body:
• The report body presents and analyzes
information gathered.
 Conclusions:
• The length of your report conclusion depends
on the length and complexity of the report.
 Recommendations:
• A recommendation is the writer’s suggestion
to the reader as to take actions to solve the
problem that was studied.
 References:
• References include a bibliography if you have
used printed sources.
• The appendix contains information that
indirectly supports the report.