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Predicted streamlines for flow past a Formula 1 race car as Flow past a full-sized streamlined vehicle in the GM
obtained by using computational fluid dynamics techniques. aerodynamics laboratory wind tunnel.
As with other areas of fluid mechanics, various approaches (theoretical, numerical and
experimental) are used to obtain information on the fluid forces developed by external flows.
Theoretical (i.e., analytical) techniques can provide some of the needed information about such
flows.
However, because of the complexities of the governing equations and the complexities of the
geometry of the objects involved, the amount of information obtained from purely theoretical
methods is limited.
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KAP. 9
Bil drag
-1,70E+04
-1,70E+04
-1,70E+04
Drag -1,70E+04
-1,70E+04
-1,70E+04
-1,70E+04
Tid
Simulated streamlines for flow past a Formula 1 race car as obtained by using
computational fluid dynamics techniques (Flow-3D / Peter Selvik 4ID - 2004). 2
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Learning objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to:
• Identify and discuss the features of external flow.
• Explain the fundamental characteristics of a boundary layer, including laminar, transitional,
and turbulent regimes.
• Calculate boundary layer parameters for flow past a flat plate.
• Provide a description of boundary layer separation.
• Calculate the lift and drag forces for various objects.
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KAP. 9
Lift & Drag
I en strømning rundt et legeme oppstår det krefter i fluid-body
grensesjiktet. Disse kreftene kan beskrives i form av
spenninger - wall shear stresses, tw, og trykkspenninger, p
(figuren t.v.). Kreftene på et lite flatestykke, dA, kan illustreres
som på figuren under:
A
y p d
tdA
dA
q
x
Trykk- og skjærspenning på et lite flatestykke på overflaten av et legeme.
Skjærspenning og trykk bidrar begge til lift og drag på et legeme. Ligningene (1) og (2)
krever detaljerte opplysninger om distribusjonen av skjærspenning og trykk på legemet.
A er karakteristisk areal
A velges som frontareal, projeksert, normalt på U-vektor
A er et planformet areal
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Drag Coefficient – Shape Dependence
Clearly the drag coefficient for an object depends on the shape of the object, with shapes
ranging from those that are streamlined to those that are blunt. The drag on an ellipse with
aspect ratio /D where D and are the thickness and length parallel to the flow, illustrates this
dependence.
Drag coefficient for an ellipse with the characteristic area either the frontal area, A = bD, or the
planform area, A = b
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Two objects of considerably different size that have the same drag force:
(a) circular cylinder CD = 1.2; (b) streamlined strut CD = 0.12
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For very small Reynolds number flows, the drag coefficient varies inversely with the Reynolds number.
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Character of the drag coefficient as a function of Reynolds number for objects with various
degrees of streamlining, from a flat plate normal to the upstream flow to a flat plate parallel to
the flow (two-dimensional flow).
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Drag coefficient as a function of Mach number for two-dimensional objects in subsonic flow.
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Re=rUl/m KAP. 9
=0.1
Strømning rundt et legeme – Viskøse effekter
Reynolds tallet er en viktig dimensjonsløs parameter ved
typiske external flows.
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KAP. 9
Flow separation
Som en følge av at treghetskreftene øker, vil det oppstå en separasjon der fluidet har for stor
hastighet til å kunne følge helt rundt legemet.
Bak oppstår det en resirkulasjon/separation bobble.
Punktet på legemet hvor dette oppstår kalles separasjonspunktet.
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KAP. 9
Strømning rundt et legeme og flow separation
Figuren t.v. viser typiske strømningskarakteristikker for stasjonær, viskøs, strømning rundt en sirkulær sylinder,
for henholdsvis lav-, moderat- og høy Re-strømning.
Re=rUl/m =0.1: Strømlinjene følger konturene rundt
sylinderen. Det viskøse området er relativt stort
Boundary layer thickness: (a) standard boundary layer thickness, (b) boundary layer displacement thickness.
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KAP. 9
where η is the eddy viscosity or the turbulent viscosity which is analogous to the laminar molecular
viscosity, u is the mean horizontal velocity and z is the height above the surface. The eddy viscosity is a
function of both fluid properties and flow conditions, and Prandtl suggested that the eddy viscosity could be
considered as a function the vertical velocity gradient, the fluid density and a mixing length lm,
η=ρlm2 |∂u/∂z| (2)
Prandtl estimated the mixing length to be proportional to the height z, thus lm= κz (3)
where κ is von Kármán’s constant which is approximately equal to 0.41. Combining the mixing length
estimate with eq. 1 and eq. 2 leads to an expression for the vertical velocity gradient,
∂u/∂z=1/κz √(τw/ρ)=u*/κz where u* ≡ √(τw/ρ) (4)
where τw is the shear stress and ρ is the air density. The friction velocity is rather a quantity for the surface
stress even if it has the dimensions of velocity. Thus an integration of eq. 4 from z0 to z0 + z and assuming
u(z0)=0, leads to the well known logarithmic velocity profile for turbulent mean flow:
u(z)=u*/κ ln((z+z0)/z0 ) (5) u(z)=u*/κ ln(z/z0 ) (6)
where z0 is the aerodynamic surface roughness in meter. Measurements of wind velocities during blowing
snow conditions by Budd et al. (1966) and Liljequist (1957) are in agreement with eq. 6 for heights greater
than 5 cm. The mean logarithmic wind profile is frequently used as wind boundary condition in snow drift
analysis in relatively flat terrain and with the assumption of a neutrally stable atmosphere. 19
KAP. 9
Surface roughness
The surface roughness z0 or the roughness height is defined as a measure of the capability of the surface to
affect the mean logarithmic velocity profile. Effects from the surface on the vertical profile extends further up
as the roughness height increases, see figure below. It is assumed that eq. 6 is not valid at heights near the
surface roughness, which is an effect that should be considered in numerical analysis.
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Power in wind:
1 m/s = 0.62 W/m2
5 m/s = 76.9 W/m2
10 m/s = 615 W/m2
20 m/s = 4920 W/m2
The air density changes with temperature. Calculate the difference in total energy potential between cold air at
-20°C and warmer air at 20°C, both flowing at 10 m/s.
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KAP. 9
Drag
Vanskelig å bestemme analytisk, oftest avhengig av forsøk.
V9.5 Fallskjermhopping
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Drag og Re
V9.6 Svingninger
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9.1 KAP. 9
9.38
9.29
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9.39
9,48
9,51
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Problem 2
On a site for future development of an onshore Wind Turbine Park you have had access to a local weather station that is
equipped with wind sensors (direction & speed) at the height of 2 and 20 m, respectively. Mean wind speed
measurements gave the following results: u 2m = 7.58 m/s and u20m = 10.88 m/s. Based on this, what is the mean wind
speed at 10 m?
Problem 3
The wind velocity as a function of height, z, above flat terrain is given by u(z)=u */0.41ln(z/zo), where u* is the friction
velocity and zo is the roughness height.
Find general equations for the terrain roughness height and the friction velocity respectively, based on wind measurements
from two heights. I.e. z0=f1(u1,z1,u2,z2) and u*=f2(u1,z1,u2,z2).
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Solution to problem 2
u(2)=u*/0.41*ln(2/z0)=7.58 and u(20)=u*/0.41*ln(20/z0)=10.88
Solution to problem 3
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1.7 (12.12.08)
What kind of stress forces contribute to lift and drag on an airfoil?
1.8 (12.12.08)
What is a stagnation point on an object submerged in a fluid flow?
What is the pressure in the stagnation point (from Bernoullis equation).
1.6 (14.12.07)
Forklar prinsippet for hvordan lift (løft) og drag (motstand) oppstår på en flyvinge.
Problem 2 (14.12.07)
1.6 (19.12.06)
Hva kalles de typer spenninger som bidrar til lift og drag på et legeme og hvilken av disse er mest fremtredende ved
strømning parallelt med et langt slankt legeme?
1.1 (16.12.03)
Hvilke strømningstekniske effekter bidrar til lift på en flyvinge? Beskriv her fenomenet
lift ut fra analyse av strømlinjer rundt legemet og ut fra Bernoullis ligning.
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1.1 (06.12.01)
Bak legemer som er plassert i en fluidstrømning kan det oppstå resirkulasjonssoner/ separasjonsbobler. Hvor og hvorfor
oppstår slike effekter?
1.2 (06.12.01)
Hva menes med friction drag og pressure drag på et legeme plassert i en fluid strømning. Gi eksempler på legemer som har
største andel av drag knyttet til henholdsvis, friction drag og pressure drag.
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